CHYS 2P10 Final Flashcards
L6: what is intelligence defined as? Is it easy to define?
- notoriously difficult to define
- trait or set of traits on which individuals differ
- 1 construct, a few constructs, many constructs?
L6: Historical approach to intelligence?
- the key components were high level abilities
- problem solving, judgement, reasoning
- emphasis on age-related changes
- emphasis on individual differences
L6: What was an early intelligence test? What was the scoring like?
- Binet-Simon test
- developed in france in early 1900s
- main goal: to identify which children would not benefit from standardized instruction
- they measured using mental age
- it was the basis of modern intelligence tests
- scores were IQ
L6: what does IQ stand for? Examples of high and low scores? How is it calculated?
- Intelligence Quotient
- Historically: 1-70 (low), 85-115 (average), 160+ (genius)
- IQ = (mental age/physical age) x 100
L6: Modern intelligence test?
- Weschlet Scales
- started in 1959
- currently on 4th version
- there are two scales:
1. Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-IV)
2. Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)
- includes verbal + nonverbal tasks
- MEASURED ON A DEVIATION SCALE - how far does the person's score deviate from the mean of their peers
L6: what did Sir Francis Galton think about intelligence?
- believed that intelligence is the result of biological differences in the speed of neural conduction
- the faster the conduction, in general the more intelligent the individual
L6: Charles spearman and Spearman's g?
- he progressed the idea of general intelligence
- factor analysis to see if there is one underlying construct responsible for performance across intelligence tests
- Specific intelligence (s)
- skills applied directly to the problem being solved
- general intelligence (g): a cognitive process that underlies and influences the ability to think and learn on all intellectual tasks
- g refers to the general construct of intelligence
L6: what is g?
- mental speed and working memory are possible basis of g
- fast sensory perception
- greater digit span of working memory
= these results suggest that an overall ability to process a lot of information quickly in the conscious mind is related to intelligence in general
L6: what are the two subdivisions of g?
1. Fluid intelligence (street smarts)
- general abilities that can be adapted to any use
- ability to think on the spot to solve novel problems
- helpful in unfamiliar testing settings
- peaks in early 20s
2. Crystallized intelligence (thought of more 'book smarts')
- based on previous learning or experience
- factual knowledge about the world
- directly helpful in familiar testing settings (like a traditional exam setting)
- peaks in early 50s
L6: what is Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences? (B.L.I.V.V.I.N.M)
- individuals possess at least eight different types of intelligence
1. Bodily-kinesthetic
2. Logical-mathematical
3. Interpersonal
4. Verbal-Linguistic
5. Visual-Spatial
6. Intrapersonal
7. Naturalistic
8. Musical
L6: What is the criteria for an Intelligence on the Gardner's list?
- Isolation by brain damage: damage to brain part leads to language production, suggests the existence of specific criteria
- Evolutionary history and plausibility: needing the skill in the past to survive
- Identifiable core operation/set of operations
- susceptibility to encoding in a system
- distinctive developmental progression
- existence of savants or prodigies
- support from experimental tasks
- support from psychometric findings
L6: Measurement of Intelligence in Infants?
- in general intelligence isn't measured before age 3
L6: what is the Baylay Scale of Infant Development?
- designed because young children lack written and verbal skills to complete the test
- 2-30 months
- motor scale
- mental scale
- behavioural record
- poor predictive value of future IQ
L6: consistency of IQ from childhood? What is the Cumulative Deficit Hypothesis?
- scores at age 8 correlate with scores at age 8 (about .70 correlation)
- scores fluctuate across childhood which is normal
- the changes are typically related to an internal or external factor
Cumulative Deficit Hypothesis:
- under conditions of marked social + environmental deprivation, growth + development deficits in children augment over time
L6: What does IQ predict?
- scholastic achievement
- vocational outcomes:
1. Occupation (higher IQ = white collar jobs)
2. Education (higher IQ = increased levels of education)
- giftedness vs. delayedness
Key considerations: social understanding, creativity, motivation
IQ IS NOT A 1 TO 1 PREDICTOR
L6: what are the two factors influencing IQ?
1. Heredity: twin studies (identical twins' IQ correlate more than fraternal twins. IQs), adoption studies (adopted children's IQs more closely correlate to bio parents than adopted parents)
2. Environment: example of Flynn Effect, schooling, = this highlights the importance of environmental interventions
L6: What is the Flynn Effect?
- consistent increase in IQ scores over the last 80 years
- doesn't mena that people today are smarted, means that today the environment allows people to obtain higher IQ scores
L6: What are the three main groups of differences in IQ scores? (R.M.S)
1. Racial, ethnic, class differences: cultural test bias hypothesis
2. Motivational differences: formal testing environments, examiner race or ethnicity making people feel less comfortable, negative stereotypes (people of majority groups feeling like they have to combat negative stereotypes
3. Some environments more conducive to intellectual growth than others: eg.) impact of low-income households = malnourishment, stress, fewer age appropriate resources
L6: What is Cultural test bias hypothesis?
- biases in language used and measures (the language used in tests are biased towards the people who designed the tests -white, western men)
L6: What are some examples of in-home factors affecting IQ? (social and cultural correlates)
- mother's level of education
- families with 4+ children tend to score lower on IQ tests
- absentee fathers - lower scores
- multiple family stressors
- rigid child-rearing practices
- poor maternal mental health
= all are associative, NOT PREDICTIVE
L6: What are the primary abilities and what are the secondary abilities?
Primary:
- evolved through natural selection
- acquired by children in all environments
- intrinsically motivated
- children end up developing Expert proficiency
Secondary:
- culturally dependent
- requires explicit instruction
- not intrinsically motivated
- expert proficiency is rare
L6: What are the Three Rs (society's core academic skills?)
Reading, Writing, Arithmetic
L6: Is reading intuitive? Does it depend on phonological processes? Is dyslexia associated with IQ? (who is more likely to be identified with it?)
- reading is not intuitive: it requires significant extra effort to learn
- it does depend on phonological processes
- dyslexia is not associated with IQ
- boys are more likely to be identified
L6: WRITING: what is the Mathew Effect?
- good readers more likely to become good writers, creating a feedback loop over time (poorer readers = poorer writers = reading less = poorer writing/reading)
L6: ARITHMETIC: what are three main strategies for arithmetic?
1. Sum strategy: a counting strategy in which young children count on their fingers
2. Min strategy: more efficient, taking the larger number and then directly adding 4, 5
3. Retrieval strategy: non-counting strategy, where children memorize the answer and retrieve the fact when asked the question
L7: define Sex
- biologically determined characteristics of reproductive system
- ascribed to a person based on anatomy
- male, female, intersex
- XY, XX, XO, XXY, XYY
L7: define GENDER
- a person's self-reference understanding + definition of who they are
- identification of gender internally vs. expression/presentation externally
- Gender refers to the stereotypes, expectations, and perceptions associated with certain genders
- Examples of gender identities: [Cis/transgender] man, woman, nonbinary, nonconforming
- Generally using masculine, feminine when discussing gender
L7: difference between Nonbinary/genderqueer and gender-fluid
Nonbinary/Genderqueer—persons who do not identify exclusively as one gender
Gender-fluid—persons who self-identify with different gender categories depending on the context
L7: what is the evolutionary perspective in theories of sex/gender development?
- Males and females might have different reproductive interests = (leads to) divergent evolutionary adaptations, with each sex seeking to maximize reproductive fitness (maximization of passing on ones genes)
- On average, men experience much more variance than women and this may lead to different adaptation
- Parental Investment Theory - huge difference in the number of children males can have compared to females
- There are trade-offs between investing time and resources in parenting and mating that lead to sex specific strategies and preferences
- Evolutionary misconceptions
§ Males and females make "conscious" mating decisions - not the case
§ Sex differences are "natural" and should be promoted - not the case
§ The only purpose of sex is reproduction - not the case
Summary of Evolutionary Perspectives
○ Males and females are subject to the same evolutionary pressures (e.g. socialize, digest protein)
○ Differences that are predicted and explained by evolutionary theory based on different average life strategies for the sexes
L7: Are the sexes equal in their reproductive fitness?
- Women’s success
○ Official record = 69 children (18th century Russia)
- Men’s success
○ Official record = ~ 875 children (higher capacity), Mulai Ismail, last Sharifian Emperor of Morocco - males don't have physical restraints that women have: lactation, gestation, birth
○ Genghis Khan
§ 16 million people or .5% of men
§ 8% of Asian men
L7: what is the personality perspective (HEXACO)
- men and women differ on average levels of their basic personality traits
- Men have higher levels of openness to experience vs. women who have lower levels of openness = O
- Women have higher levels of emotionally, and conscientiousness
- Women as primary caregivers across sociohistorical contexts - take more of the brunt of childcare
- (in the past worrying more might lead to) Worry more = Higher E (emotionally)
- Be more dependable = Higher C (conscientiousness)
- Be less exploratory = Lower O (openness)
L7: what are the 5 theoretical approaches? (N.C.G.S.B -rhymes!!)
Neuroscientific, cognitive development, gender schema, social identity, biosocial
L7: what are the milestones in gender development and in what order?
1. Infancy + toddlerhood: able to identify gender differences, begin to form gender-related expectations, at 2.5 years = gender labeling
2. preschool years: gender segregation starts = tendency to associate with same-gender peers
3. middle childhood: greater flexibility and understanding of gender as a social category, awareness of gender discrimination
4. adolescence: 2 ways: gender-role identification (w/in context of heterosexual dating) or gender-role flexibility (moving away from rigidness)
- increase in mixed-gender interactions
- beginning of sexual harassment w/in peer grousp
- heightened rates of bullying
L7: what are some small but potential differences in gender development patterns?
- reading/verbal ability
- visual/spatial ability
- aggression (these actually have concrete evidence)
Potential differences:
- activity level
- fear, timidity, and risk taking
- developmental vulnerability
- emotional expressivity/sensitivity
- compliance
L7: what are the Physical growth gender pattern differences?
Prenatal development (dramatic differences)
- gene on Y chromosome triggers androgen production
- intersex
- one genetic sex develops genitalia associated with other genetic sex or both
- genitalia undergoes partial development
Pre-puberty (subtle differences)
- grow at the same rate
Puberty (dramatic differences)
- puberty = developmental period associated with dramatic bodily changes and ability to reproduce
L7: what factors affect pubertal timing?
1. increased health and nutrition appear to be the largest contributors for younger puberty eg. poor nutrition delays it
2. aspects of rearing environment:
girls' rate of pubertal maturation affected by:
- Socioemotional stress
- Maternal relationship
- Father absence and relationship quality with father
- Early maturing girls experience more emotional problems and behavioral problems relative to other girls - harassment earlier perhaps.
- Early maturing boys experience positive and negative outcomes of their development
- Longitudinal research suggests that late maturing boys may benefit from having additional time to develop social and intellectual skills
L7: what are the basic trends in cognitive abilities across genders?
- intelligence and cognitive ability is equivalent
- but, boys are more proportionally represented at the extremes
= more with intellectual disabilities, but more gifted
L7: how do boys and girls differ in interpersonal relationships?
- boys tend to emphasize dominance and power in social relationships
- girls emphasize support and intimacy
- no differences in talkativeness but yes in self-disclosure: girls tend to talk more about their feelings/experiences
L7: Agressions differences in boys vs. girls?
- no gender difference with indirect aggression in childhood
- girls and boys spread rumors the same as boys, but they increase the girl's rate in adolescence
- direct aggression (physical and verbal) more pronounced in boys
L8: what is the theory of mind (ToM)? How is it assessed?
- understanding that human action is motivated by underlying mental states
- influenced by cognitive development (reasoning about intentions, beliefs) and social development (moral judgment, empathy, conduct disorders)
- sally-anne test is one way of testing it - children stuggle to understand others' beliefs
L8: what experiences also influence ToM (theory of mind)?
- number of older siblings predicts the emergence of theory-of-mind reasoning
- parent-child conversations: talking about mental states helps
- influence of cultural context: environment matters!
L8: what is EMOTION defined as and what are the components of it?
- neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action
Components:
- neural responses (in the brain)
- physiological factors
- subjective feelings (being able to label their anger as anger)
- emotional expressions associated with feelings
- desire to take action towards emotions
L8: what are two theoretical orientations towards emotions?
1. Discrete Emotions theory: emotions are innate
- each emotion w/ their own bodily + facial reaction
- result from the evolution of neurological and biological systems
2. Functionalist perspective: emotions serve functions
- not discrete but vary based on social environment
- emotions relate to the management of relationships between self and the environment
L8: what is the criteria of the components of the emotions? (D.R.A.H.S.B.R) - think drasbr
- distinct, universally recognized facial expressions
- rooted in evolutionary heritage
- appear in infancy
- hardwired in the subcortical motor areas of the brain
- survival/communication functions
- believed to be innate
- rapid, automatic onset
L8: what are the six basic emotions in infancy?
Joy/happiness, surprise, anger, sadness, fear, disgust
L8: when do infants start to laugh? when do they make social smiles (smiles to other people)
- start to laugh at 3-4 months
- social smiles start at 6-7 weeks
L8: when does surprise roughly start?
- roughly in the first 6 months (2-6 months)
L8: is anger a preliminary emotion, secondary emotion or dominant emotion?
- begins as secondary to another distress signal (like a secondary signal), following a preliminary emotion
- then around 1 year old it becomes a dominant emotion
L8: when does sadness emerge? when does fear emerge?
- sadness emerges around 3 months
- fear emerges around 3-7 months
L8: when does disgust become associated with undesirable social behaviors? what did it originate as?
- by 2-3 years of age disgust becomes associated with undesirable social behaviors
- before then, it was originally food-oriented behavior
L8: what are the 6 self-conscious emotions? (EEEPSG) - rhymes!!
- envy, embarrassment, empathy, pride, shame (focus on self), guilt (empathy for others)
L8: explain emotion regulation: use, differences for different ages, its importance
- set of both conscious and unconscious processes used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions
- develops over the course of childhood
= younger children: regulate using behavioral strategies
= older children: cognitive strategies and problem solving
- emotional regulation is important for social competence
L8: what is temperament? what are the four different types?
Temperament: individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention exhibited across contexts
- is present from infancy and fairly consistent from birth
- largely genetically based
Types:
1. Easy (most people): positive moon, quick to adapt, regular routines
2. Difficult: negative reactions, irregular routines, slow to adapt
3. Slow-to-warm-up (2nd most popular): reacts mildly negative, low activity level, slow to warm up
4. None Classified (blends all of the above)
L8: what are some dimensions of temperament?
- fearful distress
- irritable distress
- positive affect
- activity level
- attention span/persistence
- rhythmicity
L8: what are the Big Five commonly used in personality? think CANOE
Conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness to experience, extraversion
L8: difference between Big Five and HEXACO?
- H as separate factor
- E and A somewhat different from five-factor counterparts
- better cross-cultural validity than Big Five (applies to people regardless of culture)
- better theoretical validity
L9: what is ATTACHMENT?
- an emotional bond with a specific person that is enduring across space and time
- applies specifically to child psychology: close emotional relationship between child and caregiver
- which is expressed by maintaining physical proximity, stress upon separation, and relief of stress when reunited
L9: who was René Spitz and what was her study?
- historical figure who contributed to research
- problem: high rates of infant + child mortality in hospitals + orphanages
- studied two groups:
1. Raised by own mothers = over 5 yrs, 0/289 died
2. Raised by nursery staff = over 2 years, 37% died
= significant differences in motor, social, psychological, and intellectual development
L9: what is hospitalism?
the deteriorating (often deadly) effects on infants of long-term confinement in hospitals or similar institutions
L9: what is the attachment theory? "the invisible string"
- children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing their own chances of survival
- an innate basis but the development + quality of which are highly dependent on nature of experiences with caregivers
L9: functions of attachment?
• Enhances chance of survival -> Rene Spitz's study showed this because the children with mothers lived longer
• Emotional security
• Co-regulation
• Secure base—the idea that a trusted caregiver provides a sense of security that makes it possible to explore the environment
• Attachment is related to future outcomes—subsequent relationships + behavioral, social, emotional, and cognitive adjustment
o There is an influence of early attachments on later characteristics in life
L9: order and time frames of the 4 stages of attachment?
1. Pre-attachment/asocial attachment: birth - 6 weeks
- indifferent social responsiveness
2. Attachment-in-the-making: 6 weeks - 6-8 months
- no distress to strangers or separation to primary caregiver
3. Clear-cut (or specific) attachment: 6-8 months - 18-24 months
- clear cut interest in main caregiver
- distress when separated, wary of strangers
4. Reciprocal relationships: 1.5-2 years +
- can understand caregiver behavior
- stranger/separation anxiety begin to diminish
- more balanced, two way relationship w/ caregiver
L9: types of attachment (4) (SIID)
1. Secure Attachment (over half of children in the US are this one)
o Positive, trusting relationship
o Confident when caregiver present
o Mild distress when temporarily left alone
o Happy when caregiver returns
2. Insecure-Resistant Attachment (the least amount of children in US are this)
o Keep close to caregiver
o Do not explore much
o Distressed when caregiver leaves temporarily
o Responds w/ anger + rejection when caregiver returns
3. Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
o Little distress when caregiver leaves
o Avoid contact when caregiver returns
o A little bit of wariness of strangers
4. Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
o Seek closeness w/ caregiver inconsistently
o Display patterns typical of other types of attachment simultaneously
L9: can attachment styles vary from relationship to relationship?
yes they can
L9: what is Internal Working Models (in terms of attachment theory)
- sets of expectations and beliefs about the self, the world, and attachment relationships
- constantly being revised based on experiences
- anticipate future social relationshi[s and interactions
L9: what are some recent trends in family structure?
• More children live with single parents
• More children live with unmarried parents
• First time parents are older
• More children live with grandparents
• Families are smaller than before
• Families are more fluid
• Teenaged parents
• Same Sex Parents
• Higher rate of Divorced parents
• Stepparents
L9: 3 main functions of a family? (3 'S's)
Survival - the survival of children
Skills - development of life skills
Socialization - the first primary agent of socialization in a child's life
L9: what are Baumrind's 4 Parenting Styles? Give an pop culture example for all
Authoritative (high control, high on warmth) - Mary Poppins
Authoritarian (high on control, low on warmth) - C. Von Trap (father) from sound of music
Permissive (low on control, high on warmth) - Regina George's mom in Mean girls "a cool mom"
Uninvolved/Neglectful (low on control, low on warmth) - Matilda's parents
L9: are children in daycare just as likely to be securely attached as those not in daycare?
- yes they are
- no negative impact on attachment
- child care can also be compensatory (make up) for areas that are lacking at home
L9: what functions do siblings provide? (4 C's 1 L)
- companionship
- learning
- conflict
- cooperation
- caregiving
L9: what is the Grandmother hypothesis?
- by living past one’s reproductive years, women can devote their time and resources to their children and grandchildren, and as a result increase the chances of survival of their grandchildren
L9: how is child maltreatment defined and what are the different types?
- neglect
- physical abuse
- emotional abuse
- sexual abuse
- poly victimization (more than one types of abuse at once)
L9: what are the at-risk factors for maltreatment?
- lack of parental knowledge
- lack of resources
- parental substance dependence
- parents in an abusive romantic relationship
- parents w/ history of maltreatment (15%)
L9: the 2 types of evolutionary perspectives to childcare?
Alloparenting: provision of care to children by individuals other than genetic mother ("takes a village to raise a child")
Cooperative Breeding Hypothesis: humans evolved a system of parenting in which mothers shared the responsibility for childcare with others
L10: definition of PEERS
people of approximately the same age and status who are unrelated to one another
- peers groups are beneficial but also a source of risk
L10: when do peers groups supersede the family are the primary agent of socialization?
by adolescence
- reduced parental supervision: going to movies without parents, etc.
- individuation: restructuring of relationships with caregivers to accommodate new and different kinds of relationships with one's peers
L10: what is PLAY?
- the central, earliest form of peer interaction
- voluntary activities w/ no specific motivation beyond their inherent enjoyment (doing it for fun)
- CRC states children have the right to play
L10: The Early Development of Play (Non-social vs. Social) and their three sub-categories each
Non-social play (under 2 years of age):
- Unoccupied play: watches the environment, not engaged
- Onlooker play: watches other children's play, may show interest but doesn't join
- Solitary play: engrossed in their own play, not paying attention to others' actions
Social play (over 4 years)
- Parallel play: playing alongside other children, similar activities but independent
- Associative play: plays with others in common activity, share toys but play is not coordinated, each child does what they want
- Cooperative play: plays in an organized activity with a goal, distinction in roles
L10: what is the progression of peer group stratification?
Peer group => Croud (loosely based, defining group, eg. front row sitters) => cliques (people most close to you) => triads (group of 3) => dyads (group of 2)
L10: what are three characteristics of friendships?
- intimacy
- reciprocity
- positivity
L10: time frames of development of friendships?
2 yrs: preference for certain children, initiation of interaction with preferred children
3-4 yrs: able to make and maintain friendships with peers, can identify "best friends"
5 yrs: communicate and cooperative more effectively with friends than non-friends
6 yrs: begins to center more around activities
9 yrs: more sensitive to needs of others, emphasis on taking care, helping and sharing feelings
Adolescence: friendships are more exclusive, increased emphasis on intimacy, less stable (personalities change, moving away)
L10: gender segregation in frendships and the different characteristics between boys and girls?
BOYS: large group size, loose knit, competitive, independent, simultaneous
risk factors: externalizing problems: could be aggressive behaviour
GIRLS: triads or diads, personal disclosure, reciprocity, sequential (friend groups don't mix)
risk factors: friendship related stress + hurt. Co-rumination: tendency for individuals to rehash the same negative occurrence over and over again
L10: peer group status? what are the categories? how is it measured?
Measured by Sociometric status: measurement reflecting the degree to which children are liked or disliked by their peers
Categories:
1. Popular: liked by many, disliked by few (highly accepted and impactful) - impactful in that they have power
2. Rejected: liked by few, disliked by many (low in acceptance and preference, high in rejection and impact on their peers
3. Neglected: infrequently mentioned, not noticed much by peers (low in impact and in positive/negative ratings)
4. Average: most people fall here (moderate in preference and impact)
5. Controversial: liked by many AND disliked by many (high impact and average preference, high AND low on liking)
L10: when does aggression peak?
peaks in early preschool/JK years
L10: in the Social Processing model, comparing to non-aggressive children: aggressive children are:
- Less likely to encode social cues; more likely to encode aggressive cues (more likely to be paying attention to aggressive cues)
- More likely to interpret ambiguous cues as having aggressive intent & respond with socially inappropriate responses
- Difficulty inhibiting aggressive responses
L10: what is BULLYING? Signs?
- it is more specific and aggressive behaviour (ALL BULLYING IS AGGRESSIVE, BUT NOT ALL AGGRESSION IS BULLYING)
- a goal-directed harmful act aimed at a weaker individual
**peaks during the transition to high school**
Signs:
- little concern for others' feelings
- does not recognize impact of his/her behaviour on others
- bossy and manipulative to get own way
- possess unexplained objects and/or extra money, secretive
- easily frustrated and quick to anger
L10: Bullying myths? Purpose? Does it work?
- bullies are not stereotypically lonely, dumb, cowardly = these are traits of bully-victims
- pure bullies are average or higher on: social skills, intelligence, physical size and health, mental health and feelings of self-esteem
Purpose: to get stuff, dates, and popularity
Does it work:
Yes: access to more resources, date more often and start dating at a younger age, more sex, rated more popular than average children
No: get in more trouble, relationships tend to be more violent, less liked than average children (more pop but less liked)
L10: how to stop bullying?
• Increased monitoring
• Increased punishment
• Increase bystander involvement
• Increase incentives for not using bullying (e.g., teaching them prosocial skills that work as well or better)
L10: signs of victimization
- Not wanting to go to school or participate in extra-curricular activities
- Anxious, fearful, over-reactive
- Exhibits low self-esteem and makes negative comments about him/herself
- Headaches and stomach aches without obvious cause
- Lower interest and performance in school
- Loses things, needs money, reports being hungry after school
- Injuries, bruising, damaged clothing, broken things
- Unhappy, irritable, little interest in activities
- Trouble sleeping, nightmares, bedwetting
- Expresses threats to hurt himself/herself or others - big one
L10: Risks of technology and peer relationships
- Addiction to the phone
- Hyperactivity
- ODD (operational defiance disorder)
- Anxiety
- Depression
- FOMO
- Suicidality
- Disordered eating
- Loneliness
- Nomophobia (intense anxiety when away from phone)
- Self-injury
L10: transformation via social media factors
- Asynchronicity (delay in interactions, not in real time)
- Availability (friends are more available)
- Permanence (posts, texts are permanent)
- Cue absence (can't see facial expressions) - no tone or voice
- Visualness (visual information like posts, reels, etc.)
- Qualitifiability (likes, views, shares)
- Publicness (everyone can see what you said)