Within water of the cells and tissues
When hydrogen ions equal hydroxide ions
When there are more hyrdrogen ions than hydroxide ions
When the number of hydroxide ions is greater than the number of hydrogen ions
pH 2.5-3.0 -> Stomach acid
pH 8 -> intestines
Cellular functions need a specific pH to work, and when this is changed they cannot carry out their necessary tasks
They act as "buffers" within the body to regulate pH changes by absorbing excess acid or base
Neutralization is changing an acid or base to neutral
Buffers maintain a specific acid or base level and don't change it
1)carbohydrates
2)Lipids
3)Proteins
4)nucleic acids
Carbon, because it has four places to bond with other molecules/atoms
Molecules within the body containing carbon
Molecules in the body not containing carbon
the formation of larger molecules from smaller ones
Needs energy to work
The breaking down of larger molecules into smaller ones
Releases energy
Water because of its solvent properties
Carbohydrates
Oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon
Cannot make them ourselves, rely on plants
single sugar units or polymers of many sugar units
A single sugar unit containing oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon in a 1:2:1 ratio
isomer - one single unit of sugar
polymer - multiple conjoined sugar units
Double or two conjoined sugar units
Through a condensation reaction which takes water out of the molecules to allow them to join
maltose, sucrose, lactose
polmers made from condensation of 3 or more sugar units
starch is an example
present in plant cells
long chains of carbs
comes in two forms - amylose and amylopectin
starch is stored in seeds and used as energy until plant can photosynthesize
glycogen contains more chains of glucose
breakdown of Polysaccharides to Monosaccharides - takes in one water molecule
storage molecule for plants
made up of chains of glucose attached by hydrogen bonds
these bonds make the plant's cell wall stiff and tirgid
this is a structural molecule
cannot be broken down by mammals
Can easily undergo condensation or hydrolysis to store or use as energy
Because of their larger size they are relatively insoluble
starch and glycogen are examples of this
they hold many bonds that 'store' energy until it is needed
Number of monomers = n
Number of bonds = (n-1)
Source: Plant
Subunit: B-glucose
Bonds: 1-4
hydrogens are opposite and staggered in chain
shape is linear and parallel
Amylose
Source: plant
Subunit: a-glucose
bonds: 1-4
No branches
hydrogens are on same side as one another, no gaps
shape is helical
Amylopectin
Source: Plant
Subunit: a-glucose
bonds: 1-4 and 1-6
Branching (about every 20 subunits)
Shape is branching but not super compact
Source: Animal
Subunit: a-glucose
Bonds: 1-4 and 1-6
Branching (about every 10 subunits)
Shape is branched and very compact
- used to build starch and glycogen
- energy molecule
- Used to build cellulose
- energy molecule
- component of genetic material RNA (ribonucleic acid)
- component of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- intermediate in the digestion of starch
- used as sweetener and found naturally in peaches and pears
- source of energy
- used as the most common sweetener
- energy providing nutrient
- "milk sugar" produced by lactating mammals
- storage
- more difficult for humans to digest compared to amylopectin
- low glycemic index - slow rise is blood sugar
- storage
- easier for humans to digest compared to amylose
- high glycemic index (fast rise in blood sugar)
- storage in muscles and livers of mammals
- Structure inplant cell wall
- non-polar
- insoluble inpolar solvents
- hold more energy per unit than both carbs and proteins (9Kcal/g)
- Composed of two structural units (glycerol and fatty acid)
- hydrophobic tail (fatty acids) and hydrophilic head (phosphate and glycerol)
They keep the inside of the membrane dry due to their bilayer configuration keeping the heads submerged in water and the tails dry and compacted next to one another
head - polar
tail - non-polar
- tryglycerides
- phospholipids
- steroids and waxes
Saturated and unsaturated
- solid at room temp
- single bond between carbons (no double or triple bond and no bend in molecule)
- denser and more harmful formations than unsaturated fats
- liquid at room temperature
- more doble bonds -> lower melting point
- the double bonds of the carbons allow molecule to bend and form less dense formations
Cis -> hydrogens attached to double bond are on same side -> more bends in molecule
Trans -> hydrogens are on opposite sides -> creates unatural linear shape that is the most unhealthy for you
industrial process of hydrogenation -> adding hydrogens for longer shelf life
cis -> liquid
trans -> solid
- most common and largest class of lipids
- stored in animals as solids
- stored in plants as liquids
- formed when condensation reaction occures between three fatty acids and one glycerol molecule
- long-term energy storage
- thermal insulators to body temperature in our habitat
1) phospholipids make up cell membrane and some lipids act as hormones
2) lipids have twice the energy content of carbs and proteins
3) heat insulation in animals
4) storage molecule - doesn't require water
5) for protection of exposed internal organs
- structural components of all cells
- composed of hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, AND nitrogen (sometimes sulphur)
- made up of amino acids
- has a central carbon atom
- carboxyl group
- amino group
- hydrogen atom
- R group - specific to 20 different amino acids
- depends on the side chains of the amino acids
- non-polar -> non-polar side chains (R groups)
- polar amino -> polar side chain (R group)
20 total
12 of them created naturally
8 of them through diet (essential amino acids)
- hydrophobic
- no overall charge or unequal distribution of electrons on R group
- only change is the R group, which gives different chemical properties
- there is no oxygen in nonpolar side chains
- hydrophilic
- partial or unequal distribution of electrons in R group
- contains oxygen and sulfur
- hydrophilic
- polar
full gain or loss of electrons resulting in complete charge
- contains NH+ if positive
- contains O- if negatively charged
1. is it an amino acid? Do you see an amine group, a carboxyl group, and an alpha carbon?
2. Find the R group, do you see an oxygen atom?
a. NO.. amino acid is non-polar
b. YES.. do you see a charge?
i. NO.. amino acid is polar
ii. YES..amino acid is an ion
Amino group of one AA links with the Carboxyl group of another, they undergo a condensation reaction and a water molecule is removed, linking them together
Polymerization
3 or more amino acids
one or more polypeptides
1. transport
2. contraction of muscles
3. enzymes
4. hormones
5. antibodies
6. structural proteins
7. storage
8. plasma proteins
9. receptors
measure of the unusable energy within a system
involve energy input, energy conversions, and energy output
Within cells.
are reactions that occur within the cells of plants and animals
energy required to initiate a chemical reaction
Exergonic
Endergonic
a series of steps from a starter molecule or precursor toward a final end product