SOC Term 2
Stratification
the hierarchical organization of a society into groups with differing levels of power, social prestige, or status and economic resources
dialectic
a two-directional relationships, one that goes both ways, like a conversation between two people. One person talks, putting out an idea or thesis. Then the other responds, pointing out some problems with the thesis or posing a counterposition, an antithesis. Then the original speaker responds and it is hoped, the two arrive at a synthetic arrangement constructed from elements of the original position and the strongest counterpoints
Malthusian population trap
a situation in which population growth leads not to abundance but to increased poverty
Bourgeois
of or characteristic of the middle class/upper class, typically with reference to its perceived materialistic values or conventional attitudes.
- A society of commerce in which the maximization of profit is the primary business incentive
- Capitalist class
proletariat
workers or working class, regarded collectively
Structural Functionalism
a theory in which society’s many parts- institutions, norms, traditions, and so on- mesh to produce a stable, working whole that evolves over time. Best embodied by Talcott Parsons
Socioeconomic status
n individual's position in a stratified social order. When sociologists talk about socioeconomic status, they are referring to any measure that attempts to classify groups, individuals, families, or households in terms of indicators such as occupation, income, wealth, and education
social prestige
a measure of various characteristics of an individual that is more highly valued in society
social mobility
the movement between different positions within a system of social stratification in any given society.
horizontal social mobility
a group or individual transitioning from one social status to another situated more or less on the same rung of the ladder. Example: a secretary who changes firms but retains her occupational status
vertical social movement
the rise or fall of an individual or group from one social stratum to another. Example: being promoted in a job, becoming a manager, changes class position, a change that confers both higher salary and more prestige
meritocracy
a society where status and mobility are based on individual attributes, ability, and achievement
equality of opportunity
the idea that everyone has an equal chance to achieve wealth, social prestige, and power because of the rules of the game, so to speak, are the same for everyone
equality of outcome
the idea that everyone ends up with the same outcome regardless of the fairness of the “game”
Types of stratification systems
Estate: a politically based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility. Laws are written in a language in which rights and duties separate individuals and distribute power unequally
Class: an economically based hierarchical system characterized by cohesive oppositional groups and somewhat loose social mobility
Caste: a religion-based system of stratification characterized by no social mobility status hierarchy: a system of stratification based on social prestige
Structural vs. exchange mobility
Structural: mobility that is inevitable given changes in the economy
Exchange: mobility resulting from the swapping of jobs
Essentialist views on gender
they rely on biological determinism, if you are born with male parts, you’re a man, and you are sexually attracted to women only as preordained by nature
Hegemonic masculinity
the condition in which men are dominant and privileged, and this dominance and privilege is invisible
Patriarchy
a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity
Heteronormativity
the idea that herterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation from which other sexualities deviate
Parsons- sex role theory
men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives/mothers, respectively, because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies, fulfilling the function of reproducing workers
Hill Collins- matrix of domination
intersecting domains of oppression that create a social space of domination andby extension, a unique position within that space based on someone;s intersectional identity along the multiple dimensions of gender, age, race, class, sexuality
Glass ceiling vs glass escalator
Glass ceiling: an invisible limit on women’s climb up the occupational ladder
Glass escalator: the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization especially in feminized jobs
Scapegoating
the act of blaming a person or group for something bad that has happened or that someone else has done
Ethnocentrism
the judgment of other groups by one’s own standards and values. Has plagued scientific studies of “otherness”
Racialization
the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people. Example: any brown-skinned man with a beard or a woman in a headscarf is subject to threats, violence, and harassment
One-drop rule
the believe that “one drop” of Black blood makes a person Black, a concept that evolved from US laws forbidding miscegenation (technical term for interracial marriage)
Interest convergence
a principle that suggests that social change for minority groups occurs when their interests align with those of the majority
Contact hypothesis
bringing members from different groups together will reduce prejudice. The idea that exposure to others of different groups will reduce your prejudice for those groups
Matthew effect
implies that increasing social inequality results from the accumulation of advantages provided by wealth and by the amassing of disadvantages associated with poverty
Race vs Ethnicity
Race: a group of people who share a set of characteristics- typically but not always, physical ones- and are said to share a common bloodline-Externally imposed, Involuntary, Hierarchical, Unequal
Ethnicity: voluntary, self-defined, non-hierarchical, fluid and multiple, cultural, planar
Different types of discrimination
Overt: deliberate and explicit acts of discrimination, where individuals or institutions openly display biased behaviour based on factors like race, gender, religion
Subtle: discrimination that is less conspicuous and often involves indirect or nuanced expressions of bias
Systemic: aka institutional discrimination, refers to the policies and practices within an organization or society that have the effect of disadvantaging certain groups
Adaptive: discrimination that adapts to changing social norms and expectations, taking on new forms or disguising itself in response to societal shifts
Cultural racism: rooted in cultural stereotypes and beliefs, perpetuating biases against certain racial or ethnic groups
Whitewashing: a form of cultural appropriation or erasure where the contributions and perspectives of non-white cultures are downplayed or ignored
Conscious: deliberate and intentional acts where individuals are fully aware of their biased behaviour
Unconscious: occurs without the perpetrator being consciously aware of their biased behaviour
Implicit bias: unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner
Microagressions: subtle, often unintentional, verbal or non-verbal slights or insults that communicate derogatory messages to marginalized groups
Assimilation (melting pot) vs Pluralism (cultural mosaic)
Assimilation (melting pot)
Envisions a society where diverse cultural groups blend together over time to form a unified, homogeneous culture. Individuals from different backgrounds are expected to adopt (melt) the dominant cultural norms and values
Pluralism (cultural mosaic)
Emphasis the coexistence of diverse cultural groups within a society while maintaining their distinct identities. Instead of assimilating into a single culture, different communities contribute to the overall richness and diversity of the larger society
authority
the justifiable right to exercise power
Paradox of authority
although the state’s authority derives from the implicit threat of physical force, resorting to physical coercion strips the state of all legitimate authority
International state system
a system in which each state is recognized as territorially sovereign by fellow states
Welfare state
a system in which the state is responsible for the well-being of its citizens
Soft power
power attained through the use of cultural attractiveness rather than the threat of coercive action (hard power)
game theory
the study of strategic decisions made under conditions of uncertainty and interdependence
Collective action problems
the difficulty in organizing large groups because of the tendency of some individuals to freeload or slack off
Charismatic authority vs traditional authority vs legal-rational authority
Charismatic authority: authority that rests on the appeal of an individual leader
traditional authority: rests on or appeals to the past or traditions
legal-rational authority: the brand of authority that is supposedly most pervasive in modern society. Based on legal, impersonal rules
democracy vs dictatorship
democracy: a system of government wherein power theoretically lies with the people, and therefore citizens are allowed to vote in elections, speak freely, and participate as legal equals in social life.
dictatorship: a form of government that restricts the right to political participation to a small group or even to a single individual. Such states may limit suffrage, censor information to the public, and arrange the brutal "disappearances" of nonsubmissive subordinates.
political party vs interest group
Political party: an organization that seeks to gain power in a government, generally by backing candidates for office who subscribe to the organization’s ideals.
interest group: an organization that seeks to gain power in the government without campaigning for direct election or being appointed by office. Instead, such groups use a variety of other paths to influence policy, such as persuading elected officials to advocate for the group’s agenda or working through the existing regulatory bureaucracy or the legal system
collective action
action that takes place in groups and diverges from the social norms of the situation
Theories of collective action
convergence: theory of collective action stating that collective action happens when people with similar ideas and tendencies gather in the same place.
contagion: claiming that collective action arises because of people's tendency to conform to the behaviour of others with whom they are in close contact.
emergent norm: emphasizes the influence of keynoters in promoting new behavioural norms.
value-added: claiming that certain conditions are required for a social movement to coalesce and achieve a successful outcome
types of social movements
alternative: seeks the most limited societal change and often targets a narrow group of people.
Reformative: advocates for limited social change across an entire society
Redemptive: targets specific groups but advocates for more radical change in behavior.
Revolutionary: advocates radical reorganization of society
Models of social movements
classical: based on a concept of structural weakness in society that results in psychological disruption of individuals.
resource-mobilization: emphasizes political context and goals but also states that social movements are unlikely to emerge without the necessary resources.
Political process: focuses on the structure of political opportunities. When these are favorable to a particular challenger the chances are better for the success of a social movement led by this challenger
Stages of social movements
Emergence: the first stage of a social movement, occurring when the social problem being addressed is first identified.
Coalescence: second stage, where resources are mobilized around the problems outlined in the first stage.
Routinization (institutionalization): final stage, it is institutionalized and a formal structure develops to promote the cause
Social movement organizations: Professional vs participatory
professional: a group developed to recruit new members and coordinate participation in a particular social movement; these groups also often raise money, clarify goals, and structure participation in the movement.
participatory (mass protest & grassroots): relies on high levels of community-based membership participation to promote social change. It lacks a hierarchical structure and works through existing political structures