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SOC Term 2

Stratification

the hierarchical organization of a society into groups with differing levels of power, social prestige, or status and economic resources

dialectic

a two-directional relationships, one that goes both ways, like a conversation between two people. One person talks, putting out an idea or thesis. Then the other responds, pointing out some problems with the thesis or posing a counterposition, an antithesis. Then the original speaker responds and it is hoped, the two arrive at a synthetic arrangement constructed from elements of the original position and the strongest counterpoints

Malthusian population trap

a situation in which population growth leads not to abundance but to increased poverty

Bourgeois

of or characteristic of the middle class/upper class, typically with reference to its perceived materialistic values or conventional attitudes.
- A society of commerce in which the maximization of profit is the primary business incentive

- Capitalist class

proletariat

workers or working class, regarded collectively

Structural Functionalism

a theory in which society’s many parts- institutions, norms, traditions, and so on- mesh to produce a stable, working whole that evolves over time. Best embodied by Talcott Parsons

Socioeconomic status

n individual's position in a stratified social order. When sociologists talk about socioeconomic status, they are referring to any measure that attempts to classify groups, individuals, families, or households in terms of indicators such as occupation, income, wealth, and education

social prestige

a measure of various characteristics of an individual that is more highly valued in society

social mobility

the movement between different positions within a system of social stratification in any given society.

horizontal social mobility

a group or individual transitioning from one social status to another situated more or less on the same rung of the ladder. Example: a secretary who changes firms but retains her occupational status

vertical social movement

the rise or fall of an individual or group from one social stratum to another. Example: being promoted in a job, becoming a manager, changes class position, a change that confers both higher salary and more prestige

meritocracy

a society where status and mobility are based on individual attributes, ability, and achievement

equality of opportunity

the idea that everyone has an equal chance to achieve wealth, social prestige, and power because of the rules of the game, so to speak, are the same for everyone

equality of outcome

the idea that everyone ends up with the same outcome regardless of the fairness of the “game”

Types of stratification systems

Estate: a politically based system of stratification characterized by limited social mobility. Laws are written in a language in which rights and duties separate individuals and distribute power unequally

Class: an economically based hierarchical system characterized by cohesive oppositional groups and somewhat loose social mobility


Caste: a religion-based system of stratification characterized by no social mobility status hierarchy: a system of stratification based on social prestige

Structural vs. exchange mobility

Structural: mobility that is inevitable given changes in the economy

Exchange: mobility resulting from the swapping of jobs

Essentialist views on gender

they rely on biological determinism, if you are born with male parts, you’re a man, and you are sexually attracted to women only as preordained by nature

Hegemonic masculinity

the condition in which men are dominant and privileged, and this dominance and privilege is invisible

Patriarchy

a nearly universal system involving the subordination of femininity to masculinity

Heteronormativity

the idea that herterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation from which other sexualities deviate

Parsons- sex role theory

men and women perform their sex roles as breadwinners and wives/mothers, respectively, because the nuclear family is the ideal arrangement in modern societies, fulfilling the function of reproducing workers

Hill Collins- matrix of domination

intersecting domains of oppression that create a social space of domination andby extension, a unique position within that space based on someone;s intersectional identity along the multiple dimensions of gender, age, race, class, sexuality

Glass ceiling vs glass escalator

Glass ceiling: an invisible limit on women’s climb up the occupational ladder

Glass escalator: the accelerated promotion of men to the top of a work organization especially in feminized jobs

Scapegoating

the act of blaming a person or group for something bad that has happened or that someone else has done

Ethnocentrism

the judgment of other groups by one’s own standards and values. Has plagued scientific studies of “otherness”

Racialization

the formation of a new racial identity by drawing ideological boundaries of difference around a formerly unnoticed group of people. Example: any brown-skinned man with a beard or a woman in a headscarf is subject to threats, violence, and harassment

One-drop rule

the believe that “one drop” of Black blood makes a person Black, a concept that evolved from US laws forbidding miscegenation (technical term for interracial marriage)

Interest convergence

a principle that suggests that social change for minority groups occurs when their interests align with those of the majority

Contact hypothesis

bringing members from different groups together will reduce prejudice. The idea that exposure to others of different groups will reduce your prejudice for those groups

Matthew effect

implies that increasing social inequality results from the accumulation of advantages provided by wealth and by the amassing of disadvantages associated with poverty

Race vs Ethnicity

Race: a group of people who share a set of characteristics- typically but not always, physical ones- and are said to share a common bloodline-Externally imposed, Involuntary, Hierarchical, Unequal

Ethnicity: voluntary, self-defined, non-hierarchical, fluid and multiple, cultural, planar

Different types of discrimination

Overt: deliberate and explicit acts of discrimination, where individuals or institutions openly display biased behaviour based on factors like race, gender, religion

Subtle: discrimination that is less conspicuous and often involves indirect or nuanced expressions of bias


Systemic: aka institutional discrimination, refers to the policies and practices within an organization or society that have the effect of disadvantaging certain groups


Adaptive: discrimination that adapts to changing social norms and expectations, taking on new forms or disguising itself in response to societal shifts


Cultural racism: rooted in cultural stereotypes and beliefs, perpetuating biases against certain racial or ethnic groups


Whitewashing: a form of cultural appropriation or erasure where the contributions and perspectives of non-white cultures are downplayed or ignored


Conscious: deliberate and intentional acts where individuals are fully aware of their biased behaviour


Unconscious: occurs without the perpetrator being consciously aware of their biased behaviour


Implicit bias: unconscious attitudes or stereotypes that influence our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner


Microagressions: subtle, often unintentional, verbal or non-verbal slights or insults that communicate derogatory messages to marginalized groups

Assimilation (melting pot) vs Pluralism (cultural mosaic)

Assimilation (melting pot)
Envisions a society where diverse cultural groups blend together over time to form a unified, homogeneous culture. Individuals from different backgrounds are expected to adopt (melt) the dominant cultural norms and values


Pluralism (cultural mosaic)

Emphasis the coexistence of diverse cultural groups within a society while maintaining their distinct identities. Instead of assimilating into a single culture, different communities contribute to the overall richness and diversity of the larger society

authority

the justifiable right to exercise power

Paradox of authority

although the state’s authority derives from the implicit threat of physical force, resorting to physical coercion strips the state of all legitimate authority

International state system

a system in which each state is recognized as territorially sovereign by fellow states

Welfare state

a system in which the state is responsible for the well-being of its citizens

Soft power

power attained through the use of cultural attractiveness rather than the threat of coercive action (hard power)

game theory

the study of strategic decisions made under conditions of uncertainty and interdependence

Collective action problems

the difficulty in organizing large groups because of the tendency of some individuals to freeload or slack off

Charismatic authority vs traditional authority vs legal-rational authority

Charismatic authority: authority that rests on the appeal of an individual leader

traditional authority: rests on or appeals to the past or traditions


legal-rational authority: the brand of authority that is supposedly most pervasive in modern society. Based on legal, impersonal rules

democracy vs dictatorship

democracy: a system of government wherein power theoretically lies with the people, and therefore citizens are allowed to vote in elections, speak freely, and participate as legal equals in social life.

dictatorship: a form of government that restricts the right to political participation to a small group or even to a single individual. Such states may limit suffrage, censor information to the public, and arrange the brutal "disappearances" of nonsubmissive subordinates.

political party vs interest group

Political party: an organization that seeks to gain power in a government, generally by backing candidates for office who subscribe to the organization’s ideals.

interest group: an organization that seeks to gain power in the government without campaigning for direct election or being appointed by office. Instead, such groups use a variety of other paths to influence policy, such as persuading elected officials to advocate for the group’s agenda or working through the existing regulatory bureaucracy or the legal system

collective action

action that takes place in groups and diverges from the social norms of the situation

Theories of collective action

convergence: theory of collective action stating that collective action happens when people with similar ideas and tendencies gather in the same place.

contagion: claiming that collective action arises because of people's tendency to conform to the behaviour of others with whom they are in close contact.


emergent norm: emphasizes the influence of keynoters in promoting new behavioural norms.


value-added: claiming that certain conditions are required for a social movement to coalesce and achieve a successful outcome

types of social movements

alternative: seeks the most limited societal change and often targets a narrow group of people.

Reformative: advocates for limited social change across an entire society


Redemptive: targets specific groups but advocates for more radical change in behavior.


Revolutionary: advocates radical reorganization of society

Models of social movements

classical: based on a concept of structural weakness in society that results in psychological disruption of individuals.

resource-mobilization: emphasizes political context and goals but also states that social movements are unlikely to emerge without the necessary resources.


Political process: focuses on the structure of political opportunities. When these are favorable to a particular challenger the chances are better for the success of a social movement led by this challenger

Stages of social movements

Emergence: the first stage of a social movement, occurring when the social problem being addressed is first identified.

Coalescence: second stage, where resources are mobilized around the problems outlined in the first stage.


Routinization (institutionalization): final stage, it is institutionalized and a formal structure develops to promote the cause

Social movement organizations: Professional vs participatory

professional: a group developed to recruit new members and coordinate participation in a particular social movement; these groups also often raise money, clarify goals, and structure participation in the movement.

participatory (mass protest & grassroots): relies on high levels of community-based membership participation to promote social change. It lacks a hierarchical structure and works through existing political structures

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