Approaches
Definition of Psychology
A scientific stufy of the human mind and behaviour
Definition of science
A means of aquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation
Definition of Introspection
"looking into" and refers to the process of observing and examining your own conscious thoughts or emotions
Definition of empiricism
All knowledge of reality is gained from sensory experience
Definition of inference
Going beyond the immediate evidence to make assumptions about mental processes that cannot be directly observed
Who was Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
- He wrote the first textbook if psychology
-He opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, 1879, establishing psychology as a seperate discipline in its own right
-He used the scientific method to study the structure of sensation and perception
-Showed that introspection could be used to study mental states in replicable laboratory experiments
What does Introspection refer to?
Introspection refers to the systematic process of observing and examining your own conscious thoughts or emotions in response to a stimuli.
Introspection experiment
An experience was analysed in terms of its component parts eg. sensations, emotional reaction etc. He strictly controlled the environments where introspection took place. In his lab, highly trained participants known as 'observers' were presented with carefully controlled sensory events. These individuals were asked to describe their mental experiences of these events. Wundt believed that the observers needed to be in a state of high attention to the stimulus and in control of the situation. The observations were also replicated numerous times.
Introspection procedure (3 steps)
Step 1: Presented with stimulus
eg. The sound of a metronome or the turning on of a lighbulb.
Step 2: Inspect own thoughts
Report back their own emotions, sensations and thoughts that resulted from the stimulus.
Step 3: Draw conclusions
Compare all the responses from the participants to see what was similar and different about them in order to draw conclusions.
Strength of Inteospection
Introspection has had a useful contribution
- Made emotions a measurable phenomenon, paved the way for controlled empirical research. Inspired others to apply it to more complex mental processes.
Weakness of Introspection
Does not adhere to the scientific method
-Is not a scientific or valid way of measuring behaviour. Participant observations were subject to bias due to own private subjective experience. Not replicable and unreliable.
The emergence of Psychology as a science
Psychology is fundamentally based on a philosophical view knows as empiricism. Empiricists believe that knowledge is derived from sensory experience.
The scientific approach to psychology is based on what 3 assumptions?
1. Behaviour has a cause (determined)
2. Behaviour can be predicted
3. Behaviour can be tested in different conditions
Empirical Method
- Actual experience not theory or belief
- Involved gathering data in an objective way
- Measures quantitative details
-This means inferences from the results are credible
Laboratory experiments
- Allow complete control of variables
- Only changes in the one variable manipulated that caused the effect on what they measure
- Methods can be standardised to test the reliability
- Experiments can be replicated to test the reliability
What are the learning approaches
Behaviourist and Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Main assumptions of behavourism
- Humans are born 'tabula rasa' (as a blank slate)
- Humans behaviour is learnt through experience (cc and oc)
- Only observable behaviour can be stufied scientifically
- It is valid to study animals as they share the same principles of learning and therefore conclusions can be extrapolated to humans
What is classical conditioning
Learning by association when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a neutral stimulus (NS). The neautral stimulus eventually produces the same response as the UCS now a conditioned stimulus (CS)
What is Operant Conditioning
Learning by consequence, where behaviour is acquired and maintained by its consequences including positive reinforcement, negatuve reinforcement and punishment
What is Negative Reinforcement
The removal/avoidance of somethint unpleasant
What is Punishment
The addition of something unpleasant
What is positive reinforcement
the process of encouraging or establishing a pattern of behaviour by offering reward when the behaviour is exhibited.
Aim of Pavlov
To investigate stimulus response association in dogs.
Method/Procedure of Pavlov
- Lab experiment
- Pavlov paired the presentation of food (which natural produced a saliva response - reflex) with a number of different stimuli e.g bell
- Pavlov repeated this pairinh several times
- Eventually, Pavlov presented thr neutral stimulus in isolation of the UCS
- He inserted a small test tube into the cheek of each dog to measure salivation
Results of Pavlov
- After a number of pairings, the dogs would salivate when they heard the bell ringing (without the presentation of food)
- The dog had learned an association between the bell and the food and a new behaviour had been learnt.
- Food (UCS) = Salivation (UCR)
- Bell (NS) = No response
- Food (UCS) + Bell (NS) = Salivation (UCR)
Conclusion of Pavlov
Behaviours could be learnt through making stimulus - response associations
Social Learning Theory
SLT assumes behaviour is learnt from the environment through the process of observing role models. This involves identification, immitation, observation and direct reinforcement. In order for social learning to take place, someone must carry out an attitude or behaviour and this individual is referred to as a model. Vicarious learning is when an individual observes someone else being rewarded or punished for behaviour. The consequences of others behaviour is observed and this guides future behaviours. According to Bandura, behaviourism does not take account of the cognitive aspects of learning, even though humans are likely to have much more complex mental/cognitive processes than animals. Cognitive mediational processes occur between stimuli (the role models behaviour) and response (immitation).
Aim of Bandura's Bobo doll experiment
To find out if children would show more aggresive behabiour if exposed to an aggressive role model and less aggressive behaviour if exposed to a non aggressive role model.
Method of Bandura
- 72 children were split into 3 groups of 24 (12 boys 12 girls)
- condition 1 (aggressive)
children observe a video of an adult (role model) attack a 5 foot inflatable doll. The doll was kicked and punched and the attacker used aggressive statements such as "punch him on the nose". Bandura used both make and female role models.
- Condition 2 (Non Aggressive)
children observed an adult assembling a toy showing no aggression.
- Condition 3 (Control)
no role model was observed
Results of Bandura
The children who had observed the aggressive role model displayed higher levels of aggressibe behaviour to the doll than those in either of the other 2 conditions. Children were more likely to directly imitate same sex role models. Boys were also more physically aggressive in all conditions.
Conclusions of Bandura
Bandura concluded that behaviour can be learnt by observation and immitation. Individuals are more likely to imitate role models that they identify with e.g same gender
- In a later follow up version of the study - children were even more likely to imitate adults who they had seen being rewarded for being aggressive. This demonstrates the importance of vicarious reinforcement.
Strength of behaviourism
+ Research is scientific
+ Strength of thr behaviourist approach is the use of scientifc, emperical methods in research. Pavlov uses experimental methods which control conditions in an attempt to discover relationships between variables. This adds internal validity to the research and therefore validity to the behaviourist approach.
Weakness of behaviourism
- Hard determinism (environmental)
the behaviourist approach suggests all behaviour is caused by thr envrionment. This is a type of hard determinism as it suggests behaviour and characteristics are all caused by experience and therefore Skinner suggested that free will is an illusion. This determinist view is not favoured by many as it suggests indivuduals do not have a choice over their behaviour.
Application of behaviourism
Contribution to the development of behavioural therapy.
Classical conditioning has led to treatments of phobias such as systomatic desensitisation. This therapy involves being gradually exposed to a hierachy or fears alongside using relaxation techniques. With the aim of replacing a fear response (CS) with another pleasant response (relaxation).
Strength of Social Learning Theory (SLT)
Supporting evidence
Bandura's research provides support for a number of claims proposed by the SLT. The findings of the study clearly demonstrate the importance of observing role models in the learning of behaviour, but also that vicarious reinforcement and identification with the model increase the likelihood of immitation.
Weakness of SLT
SLT provides a higher level of explaination
SLT provides a more comprehensive explainstion of hunan learning by recognising the role of mediational processes.
SLT recognises that individuals are active in their processing and interpretation of an observed behaviour, and therefore make decisions about their behaviour.
Applications of SLT
Reducing stereotypes
The principles of SLT have been usefully applied to enhance our understanding of the impact of observation and immitation of human behaviour. E.g The theory can explain the development of gender typical behaviour through thr observation of same sex role models in everyday life and the media. The theory is therefore usedul in providing explainations for behaviour and when applied can have positive implications on society.
What are Empirical research methods
- Objective
- Observable
- Quantifiable
- Replicable
Assumptions of the Cognitive approach
- Behaviour can be largely explained through internal mental processes i.e. the information processing approach
- The mind works in a similar way to a computer : inputting, storing and retrieving data.
- Mediational processes occur between stimulus and response focusing heavily on the role of schemas.
- Cognitive psychology is a pure science, based mainly on laboratory experiments.
The study of Internal Mental Processes
Internal Mental Processes cannot be studied directly as they cannot be observed (they are happening internally). Therefore they must be studied indirectly by inferring what goes on as a result of directly observed behaviour. Inference leads to psychologists developing theories and models about mental processes i.e. the multi-store model.
What is a schema?
A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organise and interpret information
How is a Schema made?
Past experiences. Assimilation and Accomodation
When are schemas helpful?
Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment
When are Schemas unhelpful?
Mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information to focus instead only on things that confirm our ore-existing beliefs and ideas. Schemas can contribute to steroetypes and make it difficult to retain new information that foes not conform to our established ideas about thw world.
What is assimilation?
Assimilation occurs when we modify or change new information to fit into our schemas. It keeps the new information or experience and adds to what already exists in our minds.
What is accomodation?
Accomodation is when we restructurw or modify what we know so that new information can fit in better
The use of Computer models
Psychologists use computer models to compare the mind to a computer and are software simulations of internal mental processes that are created in collaboration with computer scientists. These models use concepts of a central processing unit, the concept of coding and the use of stores to link the humab mind to the processing of a computer.
Cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structure, function and chemistry on cognitive mental processes such as thinking.
Cognitive neiroscience scanning techniques
- Positron emmisions tomography (PET)
-Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Assumptions of the biological approach
- Behaviour can be largely explained in terms of Biology eg. genes/hormones/neurochemistry
- Behaviours and processes can be explained by the structure and function of the human nervous system, particulary the brain
- Human genes have evolved over millions of years to adapt behaviour to the environment. Therefore, most behaviour will have an adaptive/evolutionary purpose
- Psychology should be seen as a science, to be studied in a scientific manner (usually in a laboratory)
Who was Charles Darwin?
Charles Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology.
What is the theory of evolution about?
Darwin proposed that species can change over time, that new species come from pre-existing species, and that all species share a common ancestor.
What does "behaviour is adaptive" mean?
Adaptive behaviour is behaviour that enables a person to cope in their environment with the greatest success and least conflict with others.
What is survival of the fittest?
Organisms best suited/adjusted to their environment are the most succesful in surviving and reproducing.
What is natural selection?
The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive in surviving and produce more offspring.
What is mate selection?
Mate selection is a process of seeking resource exchange eg. if female peacocks desire mates who have a colourful plumage, then this trait will increase in frequency over time as male peacocks with a colourful plumage will have more reproductive success.
What is meant by heredity?
Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the bext through genes. Genes carry the instructions for a particular characteristic (such as temperament or intelligence), but how this characteristic develops partly depends on the interaction of the gene with other genes and how they interact with the environment (nature vs nurture).
What is a genotype?
The genotype of a person refers to their genetic makeup inherited from parents. For instance, a person may have genes that code for being tall.
What is a phenotype?
The phenotype is the physical appearance and observable characteristics and behaviour that depend on genes and environment. For example, height may be reduced by a childs diet or illness.
List 3 biological structures
- The nervous system
- The brain
- Endocrine system
The nervous system
- The Nervous system is comprised of several connected systems
- The Central nervous system (CNS) comprises of the Brain and Spinal Cord
- The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprises of the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
- The Nervous system carries messages from one part of the body to another, using nerve cells called neurons.
- Neurotransmitters send electrical signals between nerve cells throughout the body which
control many aspects of behaviour such as eating, sleep and sexual arousal.
- Those neurotransmitters that trigger nerve impulses and stimulate the brain into action are called excitatory neurotransmitters. Those that inhibit nerve impulses in order to calm the brain and balance mood are called inhibitory neurotransmitters.
For example serotonin is an inhibitory transmitter which stabilises mood.
The brain
The brain consists of two hemispheres and four parts or lobes; frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal. At the back of the brain below the occipital lobe is the cerebellum. The hemispheres are connected by nerve fibres called the corpus callosum.
Hemispheric lateralisation and split brain research by Sperry evidences the idea that the two hemispheres have specialised functions.
Research shows there are important localised structures within the brain that have functions such as the hypothalamus and hippocampus. The Case study of Clive Wearing who had problems with his long term memory demonstrated how a virus damaged his hippocampus, which is known to be involved in storing memories. Neural plasticity evidences how the brain can change and adapt as a result of experience and recover functions from a damaged area of the brain.
The endocrine system
The Endocrine system works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in the body. Various glands produce hormones. Hormones are chemicals secreted into the bloodstream by specialised endocrine cells.
Hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol are released when people are under stress.
Androgens and oestrogens are sex hormones that are associated with behaviours such as aggression or empathising respectively. In general, androgens levels are much higher in males than females whereas oestrogen levels are much higher in females and the Biological approach argues that these are important in Gender development.
Strength of the biological approach
The Biological Approach uses the Scientific method particularly the use of the Experiment method. As the experiments take place in highly controlled environments, other researchers are able to replicate studies under the same conditions thus improving the reliability of the original findings. Furthermore the increase of sophisticated imaging of the brain (fMRI's etc) and other biophysiological recording techniques has increased the precision and objectivity of experimental research in this approach. This enhances the scientific credibility of the Biological approach and the research which provides support for its assumptions.
Weakness of biological approach
Much of the findings from experimental research in the Biological approach are correlational. For example research findings may demonstrate a relationship between levels of activity in the brain or hormones in blood and a specific behaviour or emotion but this does not evidence a causal relationship. For example if levels of the stress hormone cortisol is positively correlated with sleep deprivation one cannot conclude that stress is the cause of the sleep deprivation. If may be that there is a two way relationship, there could also be a third variable which is at the root cause of this relationship e.g substance misuse or late night studying which could be the underlying cause for both stress and sleep poverty.
Assumptions of the psychodynamic approach
- Freud suggested our behaviour and feelings are powerfully affected by unconscious motives.
- Our behaviour and feelings as adults (including psychological problems) are rooted in our childhood experiences.
- Personality is composed of three parts, the ID, Ego and Superego which are in constant conflict with one another
- Personality develops in stages shaped as innate drives are modified by different conflicts at different times in childhood during psychosexual development.
- Psychic determinism: all behaviour has a cause/reason.
The role of the unconscious
Sigmund Freud believed in the existence of a part of the mind that was inaccessible to conscious thought. He referred to this as the unconscious mind. Freud believed most of our everyday actions and behaviours are not controlled consciously but are the product of the unconscious mind.
Freud believed the mind prevents traumatic memories from the unconscious from reaching conscious awareness which might cause anxiety and therefore the mind uses defence mechanism to prevent this.
The structure of personality
Freud believed personality was made up of 3 components: The ID, ego and the superego.
The ID
The Id-
The Id operates solely in the unconscious Freud describes this as an individual's animal instincts. It operates according to the pleasure principle and demands immediate gratification.
The Ego
The Ego-
The Ego is the mediator between the ID and the Super Ego.
The Ego forms compromise between the instinctive Id and moralistic demands of the Super Ego and operates on the reality principle.
The Superego
The Superego-
The Superego is the morality principle which is formed around the age of 5. It is the individual's internalised state of right and wrong. It is said to be formed by parental upbringing and punishes the ego for wrongdoing through the feeling of guilt.
What are the 3 defence mechanisms?
- Repression
- Denial
- Displacement
What is repression?
Repression refers to the unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses. These repressed thoughts and feelings still influence behaviour without the individual being aware. For example a child who is abused by a parent may have no recollection of these events but has trouble forming relationships.
What is denial?
Denial is the refusal to accept reality so as to avoid having to deal with any painful feelings that might be associated with that event. The person acts as if the traumatic event had not happened something that those around them find to be quite bizarre. For example, an alcoholic will often deny they have a drinking problem even after being arrested several times for being drunk and disorderly.
What is displacement?
This involves the redirection of thoughts or feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express themselves in the presence of the person they should be directed towards. Instead they may take this our on another individual or object, this gives their feelings a route for expression even though they are misapplied.
Describe the psychosexual stages
Freud believed personality developed through a sequence of five stages. Gratification centres in different areas of the body at different stages of growth, making the conflict at each stage psychosexual. Frustration (due to the individuals needs not being met). Overindulgence, or any combination of the two may lead to what psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular stage. Freud claimed that, during development, becoming fixated on one of these stages would restrict full development result in displaying specific personality symptoms. For example an 'anally retentive' personality is one such symptom - he proposed that when conflict occurs over potty training during the anal stage a person could become fixated on cleanliness and orderliness to an extreme.
What are the 5 psychosexual stages?
Stages - Age - Libido - Conflict - Fixation
Oral - 0-1 - Mouth - Weaning - Smoking/Nail biting
Anal - 1-3 - Bladder/ Bowels - Toilet training - Anally replusive/Anally retentive
Phallic - 3-6 - Genitals - Oedipus/Electra - Sexual disfunction/Overly dependent on parents
Latency - 6-10 - Inactive - Generally calm/Defence mechanisms develop- Immaturity (not common)
Genital - 12+ - Sexual desires
Assumptions of the humanistic approach
- All humans have free will; not all behaviours are determined.
- All humans are unique and have an innate drive to achieve their maximum potential.
- A proper understanding of human behaviour can only be achieved by studying humans.
- Psychology should study the individual case (idiographic) rather than the average performance of groups (nomothetic).
What is free will?
The ability to act at one's own discretion e.g. choose how to behave despite or in the absence of influence from internal or external forces.
What is self actualisation?
Self-actualization is the complete realization of one's potential, and the full development of one's abilities and appreciation for life. If manifests in certain peak experiences (so not experienced all day everyday). This concept is at the top of the Maslow hierarchy of needs, so not every human being reaches it.
Maslows Hierachy of Needs
A motivational theory proposed by Maslow, often displayed as a pyramid of needs. The most basic needs are at the bottom and must be met for the individual to progress to meeting higher needs at the top.
The self and congruence
Self -
Our personal identity used synonymously with the terms "self-image" and "self-concept"
Congruence -
Congruence is the match/consistency between the perceived self (how you see yourself) and the ideal self (the self you would like to be).
Conditions of Worth
These are conditions that significant others put upon the individual and they must achieve these if they are to be accepted or loved. When an individual receives conditional positive regard they develop conditions of worth.
Person/Client centred therapy
Person or client centred therapy was developed by Carl Rogers. This is non-directive approach where the therapist and regards themselves as a guide. The client-therapist relationship is of high importance. The therapist displays empathy and unconditional positive regard and the client is encouraged to discover their own barriers and solutions within a warm, supportive and non-judgemental environment. The emerging "third wave"
CBT integrates humanistic ideas with methods of cognitive behavioural therapy and research by Elliot (2002) has evidenced its effectiveness as the meta-analysis showed significant improvement in clients when compared with outcomes from other treatments.