Hyaline: articular surfaces, costal cartilages, respiratory cartilages, nasal cartilages, epiphyseal plates (youth)
Elastic: epiglottis, ear pinnae
Fibrocartilage: menisci, intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis
1.Support -For body and soft organs
2.Protection - Protect brain, spinal cord, and vital organs
3.Movement - Levers for muscle action
4.Mineral and growth factor storage - Calcium and phosphorus, and growth factors reservoir
5.Blood cell formation - Hematopoiesis occurs in red marrow cavities of certain bones
6.Triglyceride (fat) storage - Fat, used for an energy source, is stored in bone cavities
7.Hormone production - Osteocalcin secreted by bones helps to regulate insulin secretion, glucose levels, and metabolism
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Axial (Head, Neck Trunk) Appendicular( Limbs, Arms, and Legs)
Compact bone: dense outer layer on every bone that appears smooth and solid
Spongy bone: made up of a honeycomb of small, needle-like or flat pieces of bone called trabeculae
Open spaces between trabeculae are filled with red or yellow bone marrow
compact bone sandwiching spongy one
periosteum and endosteum
Periosteum: white, double-layered membrane that covers external
surfaces except joints
Fibrous layer: outer layer consisting of dense irregular connective
tissue consisting of Sharpey’s fibers that secure to bone matrix
Osteogenic layer: inner layer abutting bone and contains primitive osteogenic stem cells that gives rise to most all bone cells
Delicate connective tissue membrane covering internal bone surface
Covers trabeculae of spongy bone
Lines canals that pass through compact bone
Like periosteum, contains osteogenic cells that can differentiate into
other bone cells
Compact bone sandwiched between connective tissue membranes
Periosteum covers outside of compact bone, and endosteum covers inside portion of compact bone
Bone marrow is scattered throughout spongy bone; no defined marrow cavity
Hyaline cartilage covers area of bone that is part of a movable joint (articular cartilage)
have a shaft (diaphysis),
bone ends (epiphyses), and membranes
Diaphysis: tubular shaft that forms
long axis of bone
Epiphyses: ends of long bones that consist of compact bone externally and spongy bone internally
Consists of compact bone surrounding central medullary cavity that is filled with yellow marrow in adults
Between diaphysis and epiphysis is epiphyseal line (metaphysis)
Red marrow is found within trabecular cavities of spongy bone and diploë of flat bones, such as sternum
True
In adults, red marrow is located in heads of femur and humerus, but most active areas of hematopoiesis are flat bone diploë and some irregular bones (such as the hip bone)
red, if person becomes anemic
1. Osteogenic cells
2. Osteoblasts
3. Osteocytes
4. Bone-lining cells
5. Osteoclasts
Also called osteoprogenitor cells
– Mitotically active stem cells in periosteum and endosteum
– When stimulated, they differentiate into osteoblasts/bone
-lining cells
Osteoblasts
– Bone-forming, secrete unmineralized bone matrix called osteoid
§ Osteoid is made up of collagen and calcium-binding proteins – Osteoblasts are actively mitotic
Osteocytes
– Mature bone cells in lacunae that no longer divide
– Maintain bone matrix and act as stress or strain sensors
§ Respond to mechanical stimuli such as increased force on bone or weightlessness
§ Communicate information to osteoblasts and osteoclasts (cells that destroy bone) so bone remodeling can occur
Bone-lining cells
– Flat cells on bone surfaces believed to also help maintain matrix (along with osteocytes)
periosteal cells
endosteal cells
– Giant, multinucleate cells function in bone resorption (breakdown of bone)
– When active, cells are located in depressions called resorption bays
– Cells have ruffled borders that serve to increase surface area for enzyme degradation of bone
§ Also helps seal off area from surrounding matrix
Compact bone – Consists of:
§ Osteon (Haversian system)
§ Canals and canaliculi
§ Interstitial and circumferential lamellae (layers)
An osteon is the structural unit
of compact bone
– Consists of an elongated cylinder that runs parallel to long axis of bone
-Acts as weight-bearing pillars
Lamellae contain collagen fibers that run in different directions in adjacent rings
Bone salts are found between collagen fibers
Central (Haversian) canal runs through core of osteon
- Contains blood vessels and nerve fibers
Perforating (Volkmann’s) canals: canals lined with endosteum
that occur at right angles to central canal
-Connect blood vessels and nerves of periosteum, medullary cavity, and central canal
Lacunae: small cavities that contain osteocytes
Canaliculi: hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and to central canal
When matrix hardens and osteocytes are trapped the canaliculi form
Allow communication between all osteocytes of osteon and permit
nutrients and wastes to be relayed from one cell to another
Bone is made up of both organic and inorganic components
Organic components
Includes osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes,
bone-lining cells, osteoclasts, and osteoid
Osteoid, which makes up one-third of organic bone extracellular matrix, is secreted by osteoblasts
• Consists of ground substance and collagen fibers, which contribute to high tensile strength and flexibility of bone
Inorganic components
– Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts)
- Makeup 65% of bone by mass
- Consist mainly of tiny calcium phosphate crystals in and
around collagen fibers in extracellular matrix
- Responsible for hardness and resistance to compression
Interstitial (longitudinal) growth of epiphyseal plate
Appositional growth (deposition of bone on surface of bone
Adolescence
epiphyseal cartilage in the epiphyseal plate
Constant Thickness
– Rate of cartilage growth on one side balanced by bone
replacement on other
epiphysis and diaphysis fuse
Chondroblasts divide less often
stress from muscle activity or added weight
Appositional growth
– Can occur throughout life
Endosteal Surface
matrix on external bone
most important hormone in stimulating epiphyseal plate activity in infancy and childhood
Thyroid hormone: modulates activity of growth hormone, ensuring proper proportions
Testosterone (males) and estrogens (females) at puberty: promote adolescent growth spurts
– End growth by inducing epiphyseal plate closure
Abnormal Skeletal Growth
About 5–7% of bone mass is recycled each week
Every 3-4 years
Every 10 years
Bone Resorption
Packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate remodeling process
Osteoclasts
-Dig depressions or grooves as they break down matrix
– Secrete lysosomal enzymes and protons (H+) that digest matrix
– Acidity converts calcium salts to soluble forms
Demineralized matrix and dead osteocytes
Released into interstitial fluid and then into blood
Apoptosis
PTH (parathyroid hormone) and immune T cell proteins
Osteoblasts
Osteoid seam: band of unmineralized bone matrix that marks area of new matrix
Abrupt transition zone between osteoid seam and older mineralized bone
– Mechanical signals
– Increased concentrations of calcium and phosphate ions for hydroxyapatite formation
– Matrix proteins that bind and concentrate calcium
– Appropriate amount of enzyme alkaline phosphatase for
mineralization
Genetic factors and two control loops
Hormonal controls
– Parathyroidhormone(PTH):produced by parathyroid glands in response to
low blood calcium levels (negative feedback loop)
- Stimulates osteoclasts to resorb bone
- Calcium is released into blood, raising levels
- PTH secretion stops when homeostatic calcium levels are reached
Produced by parafollicular cells of thyroid gland in response to high levels of blood calcium levels
-Effects are negligible, but at high pharmacological doses it can lower blood calcium levels temporarily
-Bones are stressed when weight bears on them or muscles pull
on them
- Stress is usually off center, so bones tend to bend
-Bending compresses one side, stretches other side
– Diaphysis is thickest where bending stresses are greatest
thicker andnstronger bone of the corresponding upper limb
Most likely to buckle
Heavy, active muscles attach
Electrical signals when bone is deformed
– Compressed and stretched regions are oppositely charged
– Compression/tension changes fluid flows within canaliculi, which may also stimulate remodeling
Changing blood calcium levels, BUT mechanical stress determines where it occurs
Breaks
– During youth, most fractures result from trauma
– In old age, most result from weakness due to bone thinning
3
Fracture
Nondisplaced: ends retain normal position
Displaced: ends are out of normal alignment
Complete: broken all the way through
Incomplete: not broken all the way through
-Open (compound): skin is penetrated
- Closed (simple): skin is not penetrated
Position, Completeness, Pentrated
Fragments break into three or more pieces, most common is aged as their bones are more brittle.
Bone is crushed, more common in porous bones, subjected to extreme tramua as in fall
Ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied to a bone
-Common Sports Fracture
Epiphysis seperates from Diaphysis along the Epiphyseal Plate
-Tends to occur where cartilage cells are dying and calcification of the matrix is occuring
Broken Bone Portion is pressed inward
-Typical Skull Fracture