SOCI 231 Exam
What is religion? What is the sociological study of religion? What is the relationship between the two? Discuss.
Religion – Social institution designed to fill our need to know by answering the big questions of our existence
Sociology of religion – The scientific study of religion and its relationship to individuals and society
Religion reflects the social order in which it grows: gender relations, social class relations, political relations, economic relations, etc.
Religion is a reflection of the society in which it emerges.
Institutions, such as religion, are designed by people to serve human needs but they do not always meet everyone’s needs.
Sociologists suggest institutions are designed to meet the needs of the powerful, wealthy, and rich
In this course commentary I, Dr. Mike, argue that the need for answers to the big questions is a hard-wired biological need, like the need for food and water. Do you agree? Consider your own life as evidence. Are the big questions important to you? Do you have answers for them? Can you see the drive to satisfy these needs in your own life, or in the lives of those around you? Discuss.
Yes, I agree with Dr. Mike’s statement regarding the need for answers to the big questions. When you devote yourself to a religion, there are answers to the big questions which provides comfort and peace to many. Many religions have expectations regarding an individual's purpose in life, when they accomplish these expectations, they may feel comfort knowing they are pleasing a higher power. Afterlife is often promised within religion, which provides individuals knowledge on what will happen to them or their loved ones when they pass away.
My personal relationship with religion/spirituality and answers to the big questions are complicated. I am not religious, nor do I follow a religion. I find it difficult to believe in a higher power and base my life and life choices on a book that has been rewritten a million times. I cannot align myself with a religion when many are known for being judgemental, homophobic, sexist, etc. I cannot align myself with something that discriminates against individuals who may be different from the norm. However, I have experienced my fair share of grief throughout the past couple of years, losing loved ones very close to me. I find comfort in knowing they are spiritually with me, maybe through reincarnation. Even though I do not follow a religion myself, my personal life experiences, such as the death of loved ones, have helped me understand why individuals devote themselves to religion, it is a sense of comfort. Similar to individuals who are struggling mentally or with addiction, aligning themselves with a religion gives them a community, a place they belong, and hope they can overcome their demons, and have a brighter future.
In the section on New Age religion, I make the suggestion that distinctions social scientists make between “religion” and “spirituality” are, when considered against the course definition of religion, often meaningless. Do you agree? Why or why not?
It is stated that New Age Religion offers spirituality, whereas traditional institutions, such as Catholicism, offer religion.
New Age Religion and spirituality may differ from traditional religion but are still considered an institution and provide answers to the big questions.
New Age Religion has higher power, books and resources, own place of worship, etc., many similarities to traditional religion, but with different beliefs and systems
New Age Religion is an institution that provides answers to the big questions; therefore, it is a religion.
Do you feel that science is a religion (or perhaps has religious elements)? Why or why not?
Yes, I believe that science is a religion but a unique religion, different than most
Science is an institution
Science provides answers to the big questions in life, and providing the big questions in life is the purpose of religion
Therefore, Science is a religion.
Many religious individuals will deny that science is religion, arguing that science comes up with truths that appear more realistic than religious beliefs
Who is Rupert Sheldrake? What did he do?
Rupert Sheldrake is an English author and parapsychology researcher who suggested the concept of morphic resonance.
Morphic resonance is known as “a process where organism systems inherit a memory from previous similar systems. In its most general formulation, morphic resonance means that the so-called laws of nature are more like habits.”
Meaning, that every species, whether that be human, mammal, etc., automatically receive a mutual memory, which will be passed on and impact the rest of the species in the future – a biological take on acquired behaviors being passed on through generations
Sheldrake’s has his followers questioning science
Scientists and religious folks were afraid Rupert’s readers would agree with his theories, which would lead to new beliefs and expose new truths
Who is Galileo Galilei?
An important figure in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century.
Galileo focused a lot of his work on philosophy, physics, astronomy, and the methodology of science.
Galileo believed in the Copernican Theory and did a lot of work regarding the Roman Church.
He is well-known in modern science and was the first person to report telescopic observations of the mountains on the moon, the moons of Jupiter, the phases of Venus, the rings of Saturn, and much more incredible work.
Due to his research and published books, Galileo was condemned and found guilty of “vehement suspicion of heresy.” He was forced to recite and sign a formal abjuration – an abjuration apologizing to Christians for his findings and stating that the sun is in the center of the universe and does not move, and the Earth is not at the center of the same, and it does move.
Galileo was forced to sign an abjuration that went against his work. Galileo was then sentenced to imprisonment.
The actions of the medieval priests towards Galileo Galilei are similar to the actions towards Rupert Sheldrake. Both individuals were exploring science and religion in a different way than society at the time allowed them to, because they were determined to look beyond the norms, they were shunned and forced to take accountability.
How do well-known sociologists, such as Karl Marx, Max Webber, and Emilie Durkheim relate to religion?
Well-known sociologists suggest that even when religion provides answers to the big questions, there always seems to be “something more” going on.
Karl Marx – saw religion as a tool of exploitation that elites use to control the masses.
Max Webber - said that religion “served” the development of capitalism by creating a life ethic that required people to work.
Emilie Durkheim - Durkheim saw religion as functioning to ensure social cohesion, and as the historical basis for all social constructs
Riane Eisler points out some erroneous assumptions made by male scholars of the nineteenth century who looked at paleolithic cave art. What are those errors? Why do you think they made them? Do you think it is possible that current scholarly work has a gender bias as well?
According to Eisler, male scholars made assumptions about archaeological finds, especially cave art. They assumed that males did all the cave art despite having no evidence of this.
Due to cave art being painted to represent animals, it was assumed men painted these rocks and the animals represented hunting, which is also assumed to be accomplished by men.
In addition to animal rock paintings, cave art was found to represent a woman and motherhood.
In many cultures today, it is the woman who performs the rock painting; therefore, it is gender bias to assume that males completed the cave art during the Paleolithic era.
I do believe it is possible that current scholarly work has a gender bias. Although gender bias has decreased significantly over the years, I believe it is something that will be present within scholarly work for years to come due to the strong assumption that men did everything in the past.
What does it mean to say that religion reflects the social order that it emerges from? Compare polytheism and monotheism. What social orders do they reflect?
Due to religion being the result of a social order, science helps debunk religious claims and proves religious answers to the “big” questions are invalid and unreliable.
Polytheism
- first religious age recorded.
- Celebrates a variety of gods within cults
- During polytheism, everyone lived in small villages, looked the same, dressed the same, spoke the same, lived the same lifestyle, had the same quality of life, and all believed in the same deity
- Polytheism was the typical form of religion before the rise of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Monotheism
- a noble concept created by Zarathustra.
- Two types of monotheism: inclusive monotheism and exclusive monotheism
- Inclusive monotheism: believes there is one god in two different forms (good and evil)
- Both gods need human followers to be able to adhere to one another, the earth is their battleground.
Based on your reading of the textbook and given the fact that religions tend to follow the contours of the social orders from which they emerge, do you that there is such a thing as a “male spirituality”? What do you think it looks like, and why?
Yes, I do believe there is a male spirituality.
The term “muscular Christianity” was coined in the 1800s to describe a new Christian ethic and lifestyle.
There were two main principles related to this term: 1. Physical strength and purity 2. Devotion to Christ.
The expectations of the term believe men are “strong, silent, reveal little about their personal feelings, and dedicate themselves to work, family, and accomplishments. Devoted to his faith, he knows that God will see his good works and recognize the true faith in his heart. He therefore requires no worldly recognition”.
I believe the term “muscular Christianity” is a result of gender roles and patriarchy, and responsible for males not expressing their feelings and not seeking mental health support in today's society.
Is Christianity a “calculated instrument of control” (Lundskow, 2008, 81)? Why or why not?
During the Roman Empire, Christianity gained authority; and became the dominant group within the “traditional Roman manner” which is associated with power and control.
Many turned to Christianity during war, floods, plagues, etc., as it promised an afterlife. Wealthy and powerful Romans had a higher rate of survival during a crisis. They were able to hide away from disease and war in their empires. Christianity became the dominant group because it upheld the powerful and wealthy. Moving forward, the upper class was devoted to Christianity and used their power and wealth to diminish anything that would threaten the Christian religion.
What is the relationship between the emergence of capitalism and the persecution of witches? What was the relevance of social class?
During the 1400s, women, specifically women who were middle-aged, elderly, childless, widowed, never married, or economically independent, were known as witches. Witches were considered evil and sinful and must remain silent within society. Witches were given the tasks of labor, baking, brewing, tailoring, medicine, and midwifery. They began selling their goods at markets which began the relationship of capitalism with witches. Society at the time could not understand how women were thriving without a man in their life, this was seen as evil. Capitalism exposed the “witches” and because they were seen as evil, they were killed. In some villages, entire female populations, including children, were accused of witchcraft and killed.
What is the “Great Awakening”? Who are some of the important figures? What was the relationship of the Great Awakening to American evangelism and the institutions of American racism?
The Great Awakening is known as the divide between religious groups in America.
Important figures in the great Awakening are known as English preacher, George Whitefield, Dutch minister, Theodorous Frelinghuysen, and Presbyterian minister, Gilbert Tennent
There were up to five different great awakenings. The third Great Awakening divided evangelicals into pro-slavery and anti-slavery camps, the divide caused a lot of hostility between the religious groups
What is the “democratization of religion”? What are the three key factors that allowed for the democratization of religion in North America? Discuss.
Democratization of religion is a concept known as religion inflicting on society's laws and rules.
Three important factors that allowed democratization in North America include:
1. Public education teaching individuals to read, including scripture
2. Improved social conditions allowed for expanded religious freedom
3. Statements in the First Amendment to the U.S.
How does social class and class control relate to religion?
Social class and class control relate to religion because, according or Marx, religion maintains an unequal status quo, some groups of people have more resources and power than other groups of people
What, according to Plutarch, is the difference between religion and superstition? What are the key characteristics of each? Do you agree or disagree?
Plutarch states the difference between religion and superstition is that a religious person loves god, and a superstitious person fears god.
Superstition:
- Believes in go because they fear god
- provides no escape
- fear will always be present and there is no way to avoid it
- disables a person
- People who embrace superstition embrace magic and mysticism
- Interpret everything as a sign
- Opportunistic attempts to deal with disenfranchisement and disempowerment
Religion:
- Loves god
- knowledge of how to avoid evil is provided
- Maintains order
- Reassures us that a higher purpose is meaningful
- Religious person “looks to find reason in himself and his surrondings”
- Connects individuals to other people and the larger world
Who were the Cathars? What where their beliefs? What happened to them as a result of their beliefs?
- Catharism is known as the poor person's religion
- Non-materialistic
- Claimed the world was created by Satan
- Must avoid materialistic items to avoid the corruption of the world
- Did not believe in hell and damnation
- Appealing to peasants because they already lived such harsh lives
- They disobeyed kings, queens, and the church, as a result, their existence was wiped
Describe Salem and the Witch Trials that occured
- Like everywhere else, the people of Salem saw witches as evil and dangerous
- In 1962, eight girls claimed witches practiced witchcraft on them – Tibuta, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osbourne
- Tibuta, a Barbados native, worked for one of the girls families and often told them stories of legends and magic from her home in Barbados
- Because Tibuta was not a Christian, it was easy for the village to place blame on her for being a witch
- When someone was accused of being a witch, the accuser was always right
- Eventually, Tibuta confessed to her witchcraft. In Barbados, spells and magic are normal; therefore, she did not understand the significance of the accusation. She was imprisoned and eventually exiled.
- Accusations of witches in Salem ran rapid, many people turned against each other and many were killed
- Salem is now a historical tourist attraction, the town follows the “do what you will, but harm none” motto. Many move to Salem to live a free, spiritual, non-judgemental lifestyle
What is a cult? Why are cults often considered to pose a social problem?
Within the sociology of religion, Cult has two different meanings
Ancient times = describe a devotee committed to a particular god or temple.
Modern times = separate from the society around them, conflict with the society around them, preach strict ideologies, must be fully devoted, worship the cult leader, and live their lives based on how the cult leader requires them to do so.
Cults are a social problem because they divide individuals from reality and society. In addition, some cults begin peacefully but later result in violence or death. Many individuals fear cults and what they are capable of. There is often hysteria of cults forming and targeting certain individuals within society, which often raises fear among many.
What is an “emergent religion”? How does it differ from an “alternative religion”?
Emergent Religion – Known as a religion that is not fully established – traditions, organizations, and commitments within the religion are not consistent with its followers
Emergent religion is popular within mainstream society, allowing its followers to adjust religion to fit their personal needs. Examples of emergent religions include Neopaganism and New Evangelicalism
Alternative religion – Religion that is considered more mainstream or spiritual
The main theme of this course is that religions and spiritual beliefs are opportunistic. Is this true of Neopaganism and New Evangelicalism as well?
Yes. Neopaganism and New Evangelicalism are both emergent religions but they are still opportunistic. These religions do not have standard values and traditions but they all have the same purpose to answer the big questions in life.
Are evangelicals, specifically New Evangelicals, always conservative in their politics and economics? Discuss.
It is assumed that New Evangelicals are conservative and narrow-minded. Surprisingly, similar to Neopaganism, New Evangelicals is a right-wing response to left-wing ideologies often present within fully formed religions. They understand that “something is not right” within religion and often support social issues such as feminism, the lgbtq+ community, and more while seeking the “authenticity” of the bible and religion.
What are the connections between heavy metal music and social class? What psychological and emotional benefits come from membership in “metal” subcultures? Discuss.
Heavy metal bands often use music to express their feelings and emotions towards social issues. An example used in the course commentary is the song “War Pigs” by Black Sabbath. This song highlights opportunistic corruption and capitalism, stating, “The rich leave the poor to fight the wars” The song also mentions god and Satan, implying politicians who “create war for fun” will get what’s coming for them come judgement day
Psychological and emotional benefits from membership in metal subcultures include having the answers to the big questions provided through criticism and wisdom towards the evil ones and their opportunistic wars of power, greed, and profit.
What are the roots of mystical heavy metal?
The roots of mystical heavy metal are very similar to Christian thinking but the finger is pointed at the powerful and wealthy. Those who implement their power and wealth, and exploit lower-class individuals will suffer eternal pain while the innocent people of the world will watch them suffer.
What is the “authentic core” of religion?
Today, religion is very complex, adding politics, money, and wealth on top of religion but the authentic core of religion is to find answers to the big questions.
Describe the ritualistic and religious elements of modern sporting events using examples from the textbook, or preferably from your own experience. Can they be seen as opportunism? Discuss
Today, athletes and sporting events are ritualistic and have religious elements. For example, the stadium, arena, or field that is played on is worshipped by the athletes and fans, similar to a church being worshipped by a religious follower. Pre-game rituals are often common, such as eating a certain meal, doing a certain chant, prayer, or pep talk, wearing a certain piece of clothing or accessories during game time, or making sure you are a certain number during each sports season. My family is big on the number 14. My brothers and I, and even my nephew, all make sure to pick the number 14 when playing on a sports team. To us, it brings luck. Some golfers use a specific golf club, and some football and hockey players will not shave during playoffs or a tournament. When an individual does not do these rituals or traditions, they convince themselves they will not succeed.
Yes, ritualistic and religious elements of modern sporting events can be seen as opportunistic. Typically, coaches are harsh on their team and athletes as individuals. The coach has high expectations of his team and if an athlete does not fulfill the coach's wishes, he will be seen as less of an athlete. An athlete is expected to devote themselves to the sport, resulting in all aspects of their life revolving around the sport, often, for the benefit of the coach. An athlete devotes themselves to a sport, similar to an individual devoting themselves to a religion. Their traditions, thoughts, values, routines, etc., are altered by the sport.
In professional leagues, coaches, team owners, etc., exploit their athletes by benefiting from their success. When sports teams are winning regular season games, winning playoff series, and making headlines, the team is making more money off of the athletes.
What does the word “spirituality” mean? What do Carrette and King have to say about the problems associated with defining the word “spiritual” in a meaningful way?
Spirituality is no different than religion, it brings individuals comfort and helps answer the “big” questions of about life. Spirituality claims a great authenticity but falls victim to exploitation and opportunism just like other religions do.
New Age religion aka spirituality appears as a positive insight to accept the universe as is, but in reality, we are ignoring underlying problems such as self-isolation, inequality, class realities, and global injustice. We buy crystals, and see angel numbers and speak to the universe as a sense of hope, but in reality, nothing changes but the status quo lingers on.
What is the Christian Right? Who are its leaders? What are its objectives?
What is the Christian Right? Who are its leaders? What are its objectives?
The Christian Right is an organization dedicated to pushing the right-wing agenda. The organization is made up of different churches, organizations, and individuals. The organization now aligns itself with the United Nations and uses its conservative values and beliefs to align itself with famous political figures, using multiple platforms to globalize and gain more and more supporters, even allying with other religious groups such as Mormons, Catholics, and Evangelicals.
Provide three reasons why the Christian Right is globalizing. Give examples. What is the Left doing to meet the challenge of the globalizing Christian Right? Discuss.
1. Allying with strong political ties
2. Allying with other religious groups around the world such as Mormons, Islam, and Evangelicals
3. Joining the United Nations
How does the Christian Right’s view of women's rights differ from the progressive view? Why does the Christian Right oppose the “women's rights are human rights” view?
The Christian Right ideology believes women’s sole purpose for being on this earth is to reproduce and grow a family, being able to do so is their gift from god. This leads to women’s rights, such as hormonal birth control, safe abortions, plan B, and access to sexual health services being eliminated from women. Women who are seen a promiscuous are labeled as sinful within society. With the elimination of women’s reproductive rights, comes the elimination of protection for women when it comes to violence and sexual abuse.
Christian Right opposes women's rights because they have a “pro-family” stance. When a woman is left to make her own decisions, such as having an abortion, she is ruining the chance of a family dynamic, which to Christian conservatives, is a woman's one and only purpose. Also, to Christians, women who are progressive and feminist, are powered by a greater evil.
What role did the Bush administration play in the strengthening of conservative Christian Right institutions and power bases?
Christian Right support grew tremendously with the help of the Bush administration; In a modern age, church and state are to remain separate but Bush was the first US president to use religion and religious values to push a political agenda. The Bush administration had tight ties with the Christian Right organization. The administration used their political platform, power, and wealth, to ally with the Christian Right and push their political ideologies on society. This also benefitted the Christian Right organization as it also gained popularity and followers. Bush’s opponents argued that Bush made his decisions based on faith and not facts.
During Bush’s presidency, the “pro-family” agenda and the Doho Declaration were both implemented. Both these agendas discriminated against marginalized individuals, especially women, but made the relationship between Christians and conservatives stronger.
The Bush administration allocated millions of dollars to “pro-family” agendas that aimed to strengthen reproductive issues, family planning, and sexuality. Unfortunately, none of Bush’s “pro-family” policies and agendas aimed at supporting women and their health, but instead, focused on their ability to carry and birth a child.
What is the “psychologization” of the Western world? What does it have to do with religion and spirituality? Discuss.
Psychologization is the spreading of the discourse of psychology beyond its alleged disciplinary borders. In this way, psychologization is the (unintentional) overflow of psychological theories and praxes to the fields of science, culture, and politics and/or to subjectivity itself.