Psychology
Chapter 5
Learning
What is learning?
Permanent changes in behaviour
What is Classical Conditioning?
Type of learning that is involuntary
Classical conditioning - Stimulus/stimuli
Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds. Sound, light, touch.
Classical conditioning - Reflexes
Inborn, Unlearned, automatic responses to environmental stimuli. Swallowing, coughing, blinking, sucking, grasping
Unconditioned reflex
Involuntary response to stimulus
Whats CR
Conditioned Reflex
What is a Conditioned reflex?
Learned involuntary reponses
What is UR
Unconditioned Response
What is an Unconditioned Response?
Automatic, unlearned response to US
What is US?
Unconditioned Stimulus
What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Stimulus elicits UR
What's CS?
Conditioned Stimulus
What is Conditioned Stimulus?
Previously neutral stimulus
Whats CR
Conditioned Response
What is Conditioned Response?
Learned Response Made to CS
Classical Conditioning - Extinction
Eventual Disappearance of learned response
Spontaneous Recovery
Sometimes occurs after the extinction
Whats Generalisation?
Conditioned response to a Stimulus similar to the original CS. (Fear of dogs)
Discrimination
Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli
Factors in Classical Conditioning
1. Number of pairings of CS and US
2. Intensity of US
3. How reliably CS predicts US
4. Temporal Relationship between CS and US
Chapter 3
Sensation and Perception
Whats Sensation?
Senses detect visual, auditory and other sensory
Whats Perception
Sensory information is actively organized, interpreted by brain
Whats JND?
Just noticeable difference
Sensory Receptors
Detect, Respond to one type of stimuli
Transduction
Sensory receptors change sensory stimulation into neural impulses
Sensory Adaotation
Become less sensitive to unchanging sensory stimulus over time
Vision - Photons
Tiny light particles
The Eye: Cornea
Tough, transparent, protective layer covering front of eye, bends light rays inwards, through pupil
The Eye: Pupil
Small Dark opening in centre of iris
The Eye: Iris
Coloured part of eye; Muscles dilate and contract pupil through reflex
Lens
Suspended behind iris and pupil, thin layers
Lens to Retina - Nearsightedness (Myopia)
See nearby objects clearly, distant images blurry
Lens to Retina - Farsightedness (Hyperopia)
See distant objects clearly, clo,se objects blurry
Rods
Light sensitive receptors in retina
Cones
help see colour and fine detail. Dont function in very dim light
Fovea
The clearest point of vision
Blind spot
Where cable runs through retinal wall
Optic Nerve
After Cable leaves retinal Wall
Three Dimensions of colour vision
Hue
Saturation
Brightness
Hue
Colour we see (Red, green, blue, etc)
Saturation
Purity of colour
Brightness
Intensity of light energy we perceive
Outer Ear
Pinna: Visible curved flap of cartilage and Skin
Middle Ear
Ossicles - 3 smallest bones in body
Inner Ear
Cochlea
Hearing Loss (Conductive hearing loss)
Disease or injury to the eardrum or middle ear bone - Hearing aid can bypass middle ear
Hearing Loss - Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Damage)
Damage to Cochlea or auditory nerve
Smell
Olfaction, olfactory Epithelium, Olfactory bulbs
Smell - Olfaction
Sensation of smell; a Chemical sense
Smell - Olfactory Epithelium
Patch of tissue at top of each nasal cavity, also contains 10 million smell receptor cells
smell - Olfactory Bulbs
Messages from olfactory bulbs relayed to different parts of brain
Taste - Gustation
Sense of taste, four basic tastes: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter (Umami)
Taste - Flavour
Combined sensory experience of taste, smell, touch
Taste - Taste Buds
Small bumps called Papullae
The Mechanism of touch?
Tactile information conveyed to brain when object touches skin
Gestalt?
German Word meaning whole form
Gestalt principles of grouping - Similarity
Visual, Auditory, other stimuli with similar characteristics
Gestalt principles of grouping - Proximity
Objects close together in space or time perceived as belonging together
Gestalt Principles of grouping - Continuity
Appear as continuous pattern
Gestalt Principles of grouping - Closure
If parts of figure missing, perceive as whole
Extraordinary Perceptions
Ambiguous Figures
impossible figures
Illusions
Bottom-up Processing
Individual components of stimulus detected by sensory receptors
Top-Down Processing
Past experience, knowledge of context plays role in forming perceptions
Influences on perception - Perceptual Set
Expectations affect perceptions
Influences on Perception - Attention
Process of sorting sensations and selecting some for further processing
Chapter 4
State of Consciousness
Consciousness
Continuous stream of Thought, feelings, Sensations, perceptions
Altered States of Consciousness
Sleep
Circadian Rhythms
Controlled by the brain - Heart Rate
Ultradian Rhythms
Hunger patterns, eyeblinks, heartbeats
Infradian Ryhthms
Cycle exceeds 24 hour pattern
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)
Small Structure in hypothalamus of brain
"NREM" Sleep?
Non-rapid eye movement or quiet sleep
"REM" Sleep
Rapid Eye Movement or Active sleep
Sleep Cycles
Sleep Cycles last about 90 minutes
Sleep Cycles stage 1
Light sleep - Transition between waking to sleeping
sleep cycles - Stage 2
50% of sleep occurs; Somewhat deeper than stage 1
Sleep Cycles - Stage 3
Deep sleep
Sleep Cycles - Stage 4
Deepest sleep; more than 50% delta waves
Individual Sleep - Infants and Young Children
Longest sleep time
Individual Sleep - Middle Childhood
Fall asleep easily for 9 hours
Individual sleep - Teenagers
Average 7.6 hours sleep
Individual Sleep - Adults
More difficulty falling asleep, lighter sleep
Larks (25% of people)
Early to bed, difficulty with night shifts
Owls (25% of people)
Body temperature rises gradually through day, drops in evenings
REM Dreams
Vivid dreams we remember
NREM Dreams
Mental activity during NREM sleep
Variations in sleep - Short sleepers
Less than 6 hours sleep
Variations in sleep - Long Sleepers
More than 9 hours sleep
Parasomnias
Sleep disturbances
Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)
Eyes open, blank stare
Sleep Terror
Often no memory of episodes
Nightmares
Frightening dreams during REM sleep
Sleep Talking (Somniloquy)
Occurs during any sleep stage
Major Sleep Disorders
Insomnia
Meditation
Focus attention on breathing, block out all distractions
Hypnosis
Aware of what is going on
Physical Drug Dependence
Compulsive drug use
Drug Tolerance
Users progressively less affected
Withdrawal Symptoms - Drug Dependence
Physical and psychological symptoms occur when drug discontinued
Psychological Drug Dependence
Craving for drugs pleasurable effects
Four factors influence addictive potential
1. How quickly effects are felt
2. How pleasurable effects are
3. How long pleasurable effects last
4. How much discomfort when drug discontinued
John B. Watson
Behaviourism
Skinner and Operant conditioning
Conditioning voluntary responses
Dating Tip 6
It is probably nice to be nice and reward your partner for anything.
Operant conditioning - Shaping
Condition complex behaviour, Skinner box
skinner box
Is a operation to study one kind of behaviour
Negative shaping behaviour, Risk?
Taking the reward out of the task, it'll change their behaviour
Operant Conditioning - Superstitious behaviour
Believe a connection exist between acts and consequences
Operant Conditioning - Extinction
Can lead to frustration
Operant Conditioning - Generalisation
learned response to stimulus similar to original stimulus
Operant Conditioning - Discrimination
learning to distinguish between stimulus reinforced and other similar stimuli
Positive reinforcement is
Adding a reward
Negative Reinforcement is
Subtracting something aversive
Positive Punishment is
Adding something aversive
Negative Punishment is
Subtracting something valuable
Primary Reinforcers
Fulfil basic physical need for survival, unlearned
Secondary Reinforcement
Acquired via association with other reinforcers
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforce every correct response
Partial Reinforcement
Portion of correct responses are reinforced
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Reinforcements given
Variable - Ration Schedule
Reinforcement after varying number of correct response
Fixed-interval schedule
Reinforcement after a specific time interval passed response rate increases as time for reinforcement approaches, then drops after reinforcement
Variable-interval shedule
Reinforcement after varying amounts of time