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Psychology

Chapter 5

Learning

What is learning?

Permanent changes in behaviour

What is Classical Conditioning?

Type of learning that is involuntary

Classical conditioning - Stimulus/stimuli

Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds. Sound, light, touch.

Classical conditioning - Reflexes

Inborn, Unlearned, automatic responses to environmental stimuli. Swallowing, coughing, blinking, sucking, grasping

Unconditioned reflex

Involuntary response to stimulus

Whats CR

Conditioned Reflex

What is a Conditioned reflex?

Learned involuntary reponses

What is UR

Unconditioned Response

What is an Unconditioned Response?

Automatic, unlearned response to US

What is US?

Unconditioned Stimulus

What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Stimulus elicits UR

What's CS?

Conditioned Stimulus

What is Conditioned Stimulus?

Previously neutral stimulus

Whats CR

Conditioned Response

What is Conditioned Response?

Learned Response Made to CS

Classical Conditioning - Extinction

Eventual Disappearance of learned response

Spontaneous Recovery

Sometimes occurs after the extinction

Whats Generalisation?

Conditioned response to a Stimulus similar to the original CS. (Fear of dogs)

Discrimination

Learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli

Factors in Classical Conditioning

1. Number of pairings of CS and US
2. Intensity of US

3. How reliably CS predicts US

4. Temporal Relationship between CS and US

Chapter 3

Sensation and Perception

Whats Sensation?

Senses detect visual, auditory and other sensory

Whats Perception

Sensory information is actively organized, interpreted by brain

Whats JND?

Just noticeable difference

Sensory Receptors

Detect, Respond to one type of stimuli

Transduction

Sensory receptors change sensory stimulation into neural impulses

Sensory Adaotation

Become less sensitive to unchanging sensory stimulus over time

Vision - Photons

Tiny light particles

The Eye: Cornea

Tough, transparent, protective layer covering front of eye, bends light rays inwards, through pupil

The Eye: Pupil

Small Dark opening in centre of iris

The Eye: Iris

Coloured part of eye; Muscles dilate and contract pupil through reflex

Lens

Suspended behind iris and pupil, thin layers

Lens to Retina - Nearsightedness (Myopia)

See nearby objects clearly, distant images blurry

Lens to Retina - Farsightedness (Hyperopia)

See distant objects clearly, clo,se objects blurry

Rods

Light sensitive receptors in retina

Cones

help see colour and fine detail. Dont function in very dim light

Fovea

The clearest point of vision

Blind spot

Where cable runs through retinal wall

Optic Nerve

After Cable leaves retinal Wall

Three Dimensions of colour vision

Hue
Saturation

Brightness

Hue

Colour we see (Red, green, blue, etc)

Saturation

Purity of colour

Brightness

Intensity of light energy we perceive

Outer Ear

Pinna: Visible curved flap of cartilage and Skin

Middle Ear

Ossicles - 3 smallest bones in body

Inner Ear

Cochlea

Hearing Loss (Conductive hearing loss)

Disease or injury to the eardrum or middle ear bone - Hearing aid can bypass middle ear

Hearing Loss - Sensorineural Hearing Loss (Damage)

Damage to Cochlea or auditory nerve

Smell

Olfaction, olfactory Epithelium, Olfactory bulbs

Smell - Olfaction

Sensation of smell; a Chemical sense

Smell - Olfactory Epithelium

Patch of tissue at top of each nasal cavity, also contains 10 million smell receptor cells

smell - Olfactory Bulbs

Messages from olfactory bulbs relayed to different parts of brain

Taste - Gustation

Sense of taste, four basic tastes: Sweet, sour, salty, bitter (Umami)

Taste - Flavour

Combined sensory experience of taste, smell, touch

Taste - Taste Buds

Small bumps called Papullae

The Mechanism of touch?

Tactile information conveyed to brain when object touches skin

Gestalt?

German Word meaning whole form

Gestalt principles of grouping - Similarity

Visual, Auditory, other stimuli with similar characteristics

Gestalt principles of grouping - Proximity

Objects close together in space or time perceived as belonging together

Gestalt Principles of grouping - Continuity

Appear as continuous pattern

Gestalt Principles of grouping - Closure

If parts of figure missing, perceive as whole

Extraordinary Perceptions

Ambiguous Figures
impossible figures

Illusions

Bottom-up Processing

Individual components of stimulus detected by sensory receptors

Top-Down Processing

Past experience, knowledge of context plays role in forming perceptions

Influences on perception - Perceptual Set

Expectations affect perceptions

Influences on Perception - Attention

Process of sorting sensations and selecting some for further processing

Chapter 4

State of Consciousness

Consciousness

Continuous stream of Thought, feelings, Sensations, perceptions

Altered States of Consciousness

Sleep

Circadian Rhythms

Controlled by the brain - Heart Rate

Ultradian Rhythms

Hunger patterns, eyeblinks, heartbeats

Infradian Ryhthms

Cycle exceeds 24 hour pattern

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

Small Structure in hypothalamus of brain

"NREM" Sleep?

Non-rapid eye movement or quiet sleep

"REM" Sleep

Rapid Eye Movement or Active sleep

Sleep Cycles

Sleep Cycles last about 90 minutes

Sleep Cycles stage 1

Light sleep - Transition between waking to sleeping

sleep cycles - Stage 2

50% of sleep occurs; Somewhat deeper than stage 1

Sleep Cycles - Stage 3

Deep sleep

Sleep Cycles - Stage 4

Deepest sleep; more than 50% delta waves

Individual Sleep - Infants and Young Children

Longest sleep time

Individual Sleep - Middle Childhood

Fall asleep easily for 9 hours

Individual sleep - Teenagers

Average 7.6 hours sleep

Individual Sleep - Adults

More difficulty falling asleep, lighter sleep

Larks (25% of people)

Early to bed, difficulty with night shifts

Owls (25% of people)

Body temperature rises gradually through day, drops in evenings

REM Dreams

Vivid dreams we remember

NREM Dreams

Mental activity during NREM sleep

Variations in sleep - Short sleepers

Less than 6 hours sleep

Variations in sleep - Long Sleepers

More than 9 hours sleep

Parasomnias

Sleep disturbances

Sleepwalking (Somnambulism)

Eyes open, blank stare

Sleep Terror

Often no memory of episodes

Nightmares

Frightening dreams during REM sleep

Sleep Talking (Somniloquy)

Occurs during any sleep stage

Major Sleep Disorders

Insomnia

Meditation

Focus attention on breathing, block out all distractions

Hypnosis

Aware of what is going on

Physical Drug Dependence

Compulsive drug use

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