KIN 1070 Final Exam
Hughes (2006)
has shown that smoking reduction leads to more cessation (16 of 19 studies reviewed)
Prapsvessis et al. The effects of acute exercise on tobacco cravings and withdrawal symptoms in temperate abstinent pregnant women
- Difficulty because it was with pregnant smokers
- Women did not feel comfortable coming into facility and being a pregnant smoker
- CONTROL STAYED STEADY
- EXERCISE CONDITION PUT DOWN CRAVING
The acute effects of exercise on cigarette cravings, withdrawal symptoms, affect, and smoking behavior: systematic review and meta-analysis (Vaughan Robert + HARRY PRAPAVESSIS STUDY)
- Forest plot graph
- Favors exercise
Note: If the craving score is on a 7 point scale, what is the average percent reduction favoring exercise? Approximately 34%..................
Effects of exercise on cigarette cravings and ad libitum smoking following concurrent stressors (Angela J. Fong, Harry Prapavessis)
- base line and follow up asssessment
- Psychological withdrawal scores significantly increased from baseline (Time 1) to post-abstinence (Time 2) and then again from post-abstinence to post-depletion (Time 3). This shows that the concurrent stressors really heightened stress levels in participants.
- Cravings mimic scores for both the experimental and control group for time points 1 through 3.
- Only after that do we see significant differences between groups. Time points 4 through 7 experiments group showed less craving to smoke.
- We see that controls show heightened, sustained cravings scores while exercisers show deceased, sustained cravings scores.
- Participants who exercised were just as likely to go back to smoking following treatment when compared to passive controls.
The effect of acute exercise on cigarette cravings while using a nicotine lozenge (Amelia Tritter + Harry Prapavessis + Lyndsay Fitzgeorge)
meausres
1) cigarette cravings:
- desire to smoke
2) Withdrawl symptoms
2 groups
Lozenge + Exercise
Lozenge + Passive Sitting
Assessed at: baseline, treatment, post
Conclusion -->
- Engaging in an acute bout of moderate-intensity exercise while consuming a nicotine lozenge yields addictive cigarettes craving relief for recently quit smokers
- Therefore should utilize both treatments simultaneously to maximize relife
Acute exersise effects on smoking withdrawl symptoms and desire to smoke are not related to expectation James Z. Daniel + colluges
- Positive, Negative, and Ambiguous groups in experment incoperative exersise into routines and being assessed on cravings
Conclusions -->
- No significant group main effects were found for desire to smoke.
- In other words, all groups showed a similar reduction in desire to smoke during and following exercise
- Discounts the notion of expectancy............
Plasma Cortisol levels and relation to post and pre onset cravings of nicotine (Robert, 2014)
- vigorus exersise has shown to increases coritold levles in bloods plasma
- Cortisol reduses stress therfore reducses overal nicotine cravings
Cravings and there effects with types of exersise (Robert, 2014)
vigous - has less cravings right after exersise and as stime goes on eventual light, moderate, and vigorous all experiance about the same craving (75 min)
Holding the hungergames hostage at the gym: an evaluation of temptation bundling (Katerine L. Milkman + colluges)
- tempation bundling appllied to gym attendance
Temptation bundling- putting together wants (enjoyable) and Shoulds (less enjoyable) to make long lasting habits and impacts. There are wants and shoulds people should have in their lives sometimes wants and shoulds do not coincide well together (wants panel A shoulds panel B)
Ex. sometimes exercise at first can result in pain and discomfort but overtime there are long term benefits, pride and rewards
If you can coming it with something enjoyable as a buffer to get through discomfort period of time and achieve long term benefits
- Randomized control
- Large uni fitness facilities
Full treatment condition → participants were given access to an ipod containing audio novels of their choice that they could only listen to in the gym
Intermediate treatment condition → given access to novels in devices and could listen to whenever
Control condition → were given a 25$ gift card to barnes and noble
Conclusion
- Full treatment group showed most success is visiting the gym most often
- HOWEVER post intervention/ after thanksgiving break it did not matter what group they were in they all steadily stop attending the gym
- 61% would pay a $1 or more for the device 32% would pay a $10 or more for the device 10% would pay a $20 or more for the device
Framing Financhial Incentitive to increase physical atcivivty amon overweight and obese adults
- randomised control trial
- test effectiveness of 3 methods to frim finainachal incentives in order to increase physical acticy in overweight adults
- 281 adults
Intervention
- Delivered through an iphone or android smartphone with mobile application
- All participants selected whether they prefer to receive study communication by email, text or both
- 7000 steps was the daily goal
4 treatment arms
gain incentive - money for every targeted goal achived
loss incentive - money was taken away from monthly insentive when goal was not achived
lottery incentive - if goal was achived have the chace to win 5-50$
control - no intervetion but daily feedback
outcome
- 93% of people carried smarphone on them most of the time
- Loss incentive group is doing substantially better than all the other groups
- Therefore shows people don't like money being taken away after its been given to them
Brownell et al. 1980
- Evaluation of 21,091 observations of people going up stairs or escalators
SETTING
* Six observers were located in three locations: shopping mall, train station, bus terminal.
• Observers assessed stair use
• Observations were made on same day of the week and during the
same hours
• Reliability data were collected for each category
• Exclusion: those with children or luggage
INTERVENTION
• Sign that encouraged stair use
EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS
A) basline observation
B)Intervetion sign up for 15 days
NO SIGN - sign removed for 10 days
1 month follow up
3 month follow up
CONCLUSION
* The intervention significantly increased stair use
• Sign’s effect persisted as long as 1 month after being removed
• Only after 3 months did effect decline
• The two studies demonstrate the utility of a simple paradigm for increasing activity in the natural environment
Point of decision prompts to increase stair use (Robin E. Soler)
- upsted systematic review
- most are showing a positive change in using stairs/ doing something more beneficial to health
50% of people shows a habit change
Brawley & Paskevinch 1997
Team building is a method of assisting the group to
• increase effectiveness
• satisfy the needs of its members
• improve working conditions to enhance COHESION
Neuman, Edwards, and Raju (1987)
- meta analysis
- 126 intervention studies
- showed that team building was the most effective organisational development technique in changing individual satisfaction and attitude.
Advantages of framework to understand group dynamics and team building (Carron & Spink, 1993)
• Facilitates communication with coach/leader because complex concepts can be simplified and more easily described
• Interrelationship among the various components of the team building protocol can be highlighted
• The focus of the possible interventions can be more easily distinguished
Estabrooks and Carron (1999) Journal of Behavioral Medicine
Group Cohesion in Older Adult Exercisers: Prediction and Intervention Effects
- hypothesis that a team building programme designed to enhance social and task cohesion would prove beneficial to the exercise adherence of older adults
Participants and Procedure
- 33 older adults (75 mean age)
- team building, placebo, and control group
- Cohesion assessed using the Group Environment Questionnaire (GEQ) during week 2 and at week 6--the end of program
- Team building protocol identical to that outlined by Carron and Spink (1993)
- Exercise participation was operationalized as exercise attendance and return rate following a 10-week layoff
RESULTS
- Attendance is reported as the percent of classes attended (class met twice a week for a 6 week period).
-Return rate is reported as the percentage of participants who returned following a 10 week layoff
CONCLUSION
Findings showed that a TB intervention program (based on developing cohesion) had an effect on immediate and long-term attendance
Hedonic theory (Kahneman, 1999; Young, 1952)
- provides a framework for understanding the relationship between affective states and PA
- Hedonic responses (pleasure vs displeasure) provides an index for determining whether a targeted behavior will be repeated
intensity of PA --> Affective responses --> Adherence
- Chain linking exercise intensity, affect response, and adherence being a contributor to public health problems and inactivity
- Although there inconsistent findings
(David M. Williams)
- Acute affective response to a moderate intensity exercise stimulus predicts physical activity participation 6-12 months later
Graded submaximal test
- Consisted of 2 min stages beginning at 4.83km/h and 2.5% grade
- Speed remained consistent throughout the test and the grade increased by 2.5% every 2 minutes until participants achieved 85 of predicted max heart rate (220-age).
Feeling Scale (FS)
- 11 point, single-item, measure of affective valence.
- The scale ranges from -5 to + 5. Anchors are provided at zero (neutral) and at all odd integers , ranging from very bad -5 to very good +5
Physical Activity Recall (PAR): Minutes of least moderate-intensity PA during the past 7 days
Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE): Score ranges between 6-20 to assess how hard find the exercise
Conclusion → FS/effectiveness of valence increases is increased when person is participating for at least a 6 month period
Dual-Mode Theory of Affect Response to Exercise + Ekkekakis 2008
- The guiding conceptual framework of this research is the dual- mode theory of exercise-induced affective responses.
- According to this theory, affective responses to exercise are jointly influenced by two coacting factors, namely cortically mediated cognitive processes (e.g., self-efficacy, self- presentation concerns, goals, attributions) and ascendinginteroceptive cues (e.g., ventilation, acidosis, core temperature) that reach the affective centers of the brain via subcortical routes.
(Ekkekakis 2008)
The balance between these two determinants is hypothesized to shift systematically as a function of exercise intensity, with the cognitive factors being dominant at low intensities and interoceptive cues gaining salience as intensity approaches the individual's functional limits and the maintenance of a physiological steady-state becomes impossible
VT/Ventilation threshold
It’s that intensity of exercise above which your breathing becomes labored and you feel you just can’t draw in as much air as your body wants. One's threshold is said to reflect levels of lactate accumulation.
Respiratory compensation point (RCP)
reflect the onset of hyperventilation (when more CO2 is removed from the blood steam then the body can produce). The presence of a clear RCP implies a pretty maximal effort bt the subject
Spectrum of Exersise intensity
Below the VT/LT
- Homogeneity
- Pleasure
- Low to moderare influence of cognative factors
Proximal to the VT/LT
- Variabillity
- Pleasure or displeasure
- Strong influence of cognitive factors
Above the VT/LT
- Homogeneity
- Displeasure strong
- Influence of interoceptive factors
VT, VO2, and exersise
- As exercise intensity beginnings VO2 is greater then VCO2 but then eventually VO2 decreases so much that it reaches around the same level of VCO2, this is known as the VT
- Your body will have oxygen deficit after this point as VO2 is now less then VCO2 as exercise intensity increases
VT and RCP relatiohsip
VT occurs before RCP
<VT, @VT, >VT can be related to diffrent intensity levels of exercise
- 20% below oxygen uptake = < VT
- Equal to oxygen uptake corresponding to VT = @ VT
- 10% above oxygen uptake = > VT
HR relationship to VT
- Highest HR = < VT
- Median HR = @ VT
- Lowest HR = > VT
Affect measures of FS and FAS
FS → used to measure affective valence (pleasure and displeasure). Ranging from -5 (vry bad) to +5 (vry good)
FAS → used to measure perceived activation. Ranging from 1 (low arousal) to 6 (high arousal)
Conclusion about exersise and pleasure
Contrary to the widely popular view that exercise, in general, makes people feel better, substantial evidence indicates that the relationship between exercise and affect responses is complex, with affect responses under certain conditions, being negative rather than positive
Discribe HIT (high interval training) + give an example
HIT: no universal definition, but the core feature of HIT is the alternation between (a) intervals of “all out” effort or an intensity “close to that which elicits VO2 peak (i.e., 90% of VO2 peak)” lasting from a few seconds to up to several minutes and (b) periods of passive or active recovery (rest to low intensity exercise) lasting up to a few minutes (Gibala & McGee, 2008; p. 58)
Example →
- 15-60 seconds burst of high intensity cycling interspaced with 2-4 min intervals of low intensity cycling)
- Sprint interval training (SIT) → ex. 30 sec all out, 4 min recovery X 4
What Barrier does HIT remove from lack of PA
- lack of time
Cocks et al. (2012)
- review
- 3 sessions of SIT just taking 90 min per week, are just as effective as five sessions of traditional endurance exercises, taking 5 hrs (300 min) per week, in increasing body insulin sensitivity
Mechanism→ improved delivery of insulin and glucose to the skeletal muscle
Conclsuion --> physiological , performance and health benefits
(Kassia S Weston + colleagues)
High-intensity interval training in patients with lifestyle induced cardiometabolic disease: a systematic review and meta analysis
- Cardiorespiratory fitness is a strong determine or morbidity and mortality
- It is determined that HIT high intensity interval training is superior to moderate intensity continuous training (MICT) in improving CRF
- This review and meta analysis to quantify the efficacy and safety of HIIT compared to MCT in individuals with chronic cardiometabolic lifestyle diseases
- 10 studies 273 participants
- There were significantly higher increase in VO2 peak after hit compared to MICT, equivalent to 9% difference
data dispyled - forest plot
conclusion → HIIT significantly increases CRF and almost double that of MICT in patients with lifestyle- included chronic disease
(Stuart J.H. Biddle and Alan M. Batterham)
High-intensity interval exercise training for big health: a big HIT or shall we HIT it on the head?
Biddle (out) -->
- HIT is just too hard for most people
- High displeasure associated with this type of exercise
- Only really helps active people do more
- HIT will have poor uptake and maintenance
Batterham (in) -->
- Practical and scalable HIT protocols need to continue to be developed
- Purported displeasure associated with this type of exercise has been overstated
- Traditional PA promotion framework (150 min MVPA) has been a failure
- HIT produces rapid physiological adaptions that can benefit public health
(Bruno R. R. Oliveira + Colleagues)
Continuous and High-Intensity Interval Training Which Promotes Higher Pleasure?
Objectives → to compare the psychological response to continuous (CT) and high-intensity interval training (HIT) sessions
** participants in this trial are extremely fit and highly trained athletes**
Methods →
- 15 men
- One CT session and one HIT session
- During the first visit the max HR, VO2 peak and respiratory compensation point (RCP) were determined through a maximal cardiopulmonary exercise test
- The HIT stimulus intensity corresponded to 100% of VO2 peal
- The average intensity of both sessions was maintained at 15% below RCP
- The order of the session was a randomized
- Physiological and physiological variables were recoded before, during and after each session
- HIT sessions lasted for 2 minutes and the recovery duration was adjusted to maintain the same average Intensity that was applied to the CT condition.
- The number of HIT stimuli was adjusted to allow the same total duration as the CT sessions
- FS and FAS were assessed 10 minutes prior to each training session, and after each HIT stimulus. During the CT session, measurements were made at the same time interval as the HIT session
Conclusion → despite the same average intensity for moth conditions, similar psychological response under HIT and CT conditions were not observed, suggesting that the higher dependance on anaerobic metabolism during HIT negatively influence the feeling scale responses
** KEEP IN MIND HIT training may work with trained athletes because they have the coping mechanisms to deal with displeasure from training **
(Emily S. Decker, Panteleimon Ekkekakis)
Pleasure and enjoyment response to high intensity interval exercise in low active women with obesity
Objectives →
- Fewer than 1.5 % of women with obesity in the USA are physically active at recommended levels
- High-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) has been proposed as a possible solution to the problem of low activity, based on the dual promise of accelerating the accrual of benefits white reducing the time commitment.
- Concerns about appeal and sustainability of HIIE
Purpose was to compare during exercise affective valence and post exercise enjoyment in response to a bout of HIIE and a longer, isocaloric bout of moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE)
Design → within-subjects experiment
Methods →
- Low active obese women (N=24)
- Completes one bout of HIIE ( 3 min warm up, four 33- min intervals of recumbent cycling at 115% of watts t the ventilation threshold, four 2-min periods of active recovery at 85% og watts at the ventilation threshold, 5-min cool-down) in counterbalanced order
- The FS was administered during exercise and the physical activity enjoyment scale (PACES) was administered after cool-down
PACES: physical activity Enjoyment scale - 18 items on a 7 point bipolar scale
Results -->
- No significant difference between kcals between treatment groups
- differences were found for both FS and PASE with both outcomes favoring MICE
Conclusions → the lower pleasure and enjoyment associated with HIIE compared to MICE underscore the importance of considering not only physiological adaptations but also the appeal and sustainability of HIIE for low active women with obesity
A Modeling Intervention in Heart Failure ( Maddison, Prapavessis, & Armstrong )
Purpose
- Investigate the effectiveness of peer coping model intervention to increase self-efficacy and exercise tolerance during a cardiopulmonary exercise test, in pt. with heart failure
Method
- 20 participants
- 78% male
- CHF
- had an exclusion criteria
Measures
Peak VO2 → oxygen consumption at peak exercise
Ability to transport oxygen to working muscles
Utilization of oxygen by muscles during exercise
Self- efficacy → self reported confidence to walk during a peak VO2 test for increasing periods of time (i.e. 2, 4, ,6, 8, 10 min) at three intensities (i.e. easy, moderate, and hard)
Intervention
- DVD
- Edited interview and various action shot of the models (heart failure patients - two males and two females) demonstrating and verbalizing increased confidence to a) perform the VO2 test and b) overcome the associated discomfort during the VO2 test
Procedure
- Each participant attend tep one hour sessions at the hospital for peak VO2 rest one week apart
- A cardiopulmonary medical technician conducted each peak VO2 test
- Following testing at T1 those in the intervention group were administered the peer modeling DVD
- A trained researched assistance administered measures of self efficacy prior to T1 and T2 peak VO2 testing
Results
Peak VO2 - Intervention: 6.3% improvement, Control: -1.26% decrement
Self-efficacy - Intervention: imported by 28.6%, Control: improved by 1.5%
Conclusions
- Watching a modeling video is associated with increase in peak VO2 and self efficacy
- Self efficacy is a potent mediator for explaining why the modeling intervention had a positive effect on peak VO2
- Findings have implications for testing patients in a clinical setting to maximize exercise tolerance test
Mediation
- Treatment meditators in RCTs identity possible mechanism through which a treatment might achieve its effects
Internetion (modeling) --> self efficacy --> peak VO2
(Gordon-Larsen et al. 2009)
US study found that men who walk or cycle to work were half as likely to be obese
(Frank et al. 2004)
Another US study found that every additional kilometer walked per day is associated with a 4.8% reduction in obesity. In contrast, every additional hour spent in a car each day is associated with a 6% increase in the likelihood of obesity
(James E. Pererman + colleagues)
Pedelecs as a physically active transportation mode
Background → People often perceive e-bikes as bikes for the lazy. But while they may not be as great exercise as regular bikes, they may be a whole lot better than driving.
Procedure →
- For the tests, 20 "sedentary commuters" were told to commute to work by e-bike at least three times per week, for 40 minutes a day over 1 month.
- They wore a GPS tracker and a heart-rate monitor. The bicycles they used were electric-assist models, called pedelecs, which use an electric motor to boost the rider’s own strength.
- You still pedal, but it’s a lot easier—a hill feels like a flat stretch, for example. The bikes in the study provideassistance up to 20 miles per hour.
- Above that, it’s leg-power only.
- According to the GPS trackers, the participants averaged 12.5 mph.
Results → After a month of this, health tests showed the subjects had better cardiovascular health, more aerobic capacity, and improved blood sugar control compared to before.
Implements to make cycling safer
Bike boxes→ marked spaced at an intersection that indicate dedicate areas where cyclist can wait we stopped at an intersection
- Can facilitate left hand hornets
- Increase cyclist visibility
Markings though intercessions →
- Increased cyclist disability
- Creates more space for them on the road through intersections
Protected Bike Lanes →
- Increases safety
- Quickest way to implement is to instal inexpensive and removable plastic bollards (shown)
(Leighton Jones, Costas I. Karageorghis, and colleagues)
Can high intensity exercise be more pleasant > Attenital dissociation using music and video
Background →
- theories suggest that external stimuli (e.g., auditory and visual) may be rendered ineffective in modulating attention when exercise intensity is high
Purpose and methods →
- Examined the effects of music and parkland video footage on psychological measures during and after stationary cycling at two intensities: 10% of maximal capacity below ventilatory threshold (VT) and 5% above VT.
- Participants (N = 34) were exposed to four conditions at each intensity: music only, video only, music and video, and control.
Measures →
Feeling scale: a single 11 point scale that ranges from +5 (very good) to -5 (very bad)
State attention: single bipolar scale attached to the verbal anchors “internal focus” (bodily sensations, heart rate, breathing, etc) and “external focus”(daydreaming, external environment, etc). Participants were required to mark the 20 cm scale with an X to indicate their predominant focus during a bout of exercise. The distance from the left-handed point of the scale to the X in centimeters was multiplied by 5 to derive a score of 100, with scores over 50 indicating a predominantly external focus
PACES: Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale-18 items on a 7 point bipolar scale
Conclusions →
- Music and music combined with video can significantly enhance the affective, attentional states, and enjoyment experience of HIT
- These manipulations are influenced by the intensity of exercise (i.e., 10 % below or 5% about VT) for enjoyment only. Findings indicate that attentional manipulations can exert a salient influence on enjoyment even at intensities slightly above ventilatory threshold.
Self-efficacy & Affect Response in Sprint Interval Training (Amelia Tritter, Lyndsay Fitzgeorge, Anita Cramp, & Harry Prapavessis (2013)) WESTERN UNIVERSITY
Background →
- Strenuous SIT protocol + adverse symptoms of vigorous exercise negative affect (Ekkekakis et al., 2008)
- Altering affect has the potential to produce a more positive experience
- Self-efficacy influences affect (Bandura, 1997)
Previous work →
- Influence of bogus performance feedback on exercise self-efficacy and affective states Maximal exercise test (Jerome et al.,2002)
- Satisfaction and enjoyment are related to exercise adherence (Johnson et al., 1998; Rothman, 2000)
- Maximal exercise test (Hu et al., 2007) + self efficacy
Extending the findings →
• Practical implications using a real life maximal exercise regime (i.e. SIT)
Rationale for SIT →
1. Efficacious beliefs are most salient when activity is challenging(McAuley & Mihalko, 1998)
2. Feedback statements following each interval
Purpose →
To examine the effect of fictitious high efficacy (HE) and low efficacy (LE) exercise performance feedback on self- efficacy and affective states while performing SIT
Method: Sample →
41 female and 25 male Western University students
Demographic: Age (M = 21.8, SD = 2.2)
Anthropometric:BMI(M=24.5,SD=3.9)
ExerciseBehavior:GLETQ(M=65.4,SD=26.0)
Method: Measures →
1. SIT Self-efficacy (adapted from Bandura, 1997)
2. Affect: SEES (McAuley & Courneya, 1994)
Subscales: Positive Well-being, Psychological Distress & Fatigue
3. Enjoyment: PACES (Kendzierski & DeCarlo, 1991)
4. SIT satisfaction (purpose-built)
CONCLUSION
receiving posititve feedback whrn preforming SIT...
- minimises declines in self efficiacy
- miminses declines in postivive affect and inclines in psychological distress
- Bolsters feeling of exersize enjoyment and satisfaction
- Reduces liklihood of early termination
- potential to increase future engagement
Future reasearch
- goal & implemtation intention
Measuring PA - Self - Report Measures
- Questionnaires
- Diaries
- Interviews
Pros → ease of administration, low cost, record activity type and were performed
Cons → recall bias/social desirability, large number of questions used, not all questions can be used to calculate EE
Measuring PA - Accelerometry
- Digital recording of the intensity of movement produced during activities
- Device used is called acticall and pick up movement along frontal, sagittal, and transverse plane
- Location to where placed can impact the intensity of movement to be picked up
Pros → evaluates frequency, intensity, and duration, Non burdensome
Cons → can account for increased energy cost associated with statistic and resistance exercise, inaccurate estimate for activities that involve limb movement e.g., cycling and rowing, also is expensive
Measuring PA -HR
- Min by min heart rate data
- Coded HR band
- Physical activity intensity determined by % max HR
Pros → physiological measure, min-by-min data, non burdensome, low cost
Cons → factors unrelated to activity influence by HR, remains elevated after movement stopes, using HR to predict EE can be difficult (need to consider fitness and weight)
Measuring PA - Combined snsing (HR+accelerometer)
- The biomechanical limitations associated with accelerometry and biological limitations associated with HR are not correlated (good thing)
- Increases in HR associated with increases in accelerometry verify increases are due to activity
Pros → noninvasive, combined HR and accelerometry in one device, more precise measure of PAEE than HR or accelerometry alone
Cons → new divide, little validity for divide, cost
Measuring PA - doubly labeled water
- A drink mix containing two stable isotopes: Deuterium (2H) and Oxygen-18 (18O)
- 2H and 18O elimination rate provides insight into total exergy expenditure
- Differences in the elimination of 2H and 18O used to estimate carbon dioxide (CO2)
- CO2 rates utilized to calculate daily total energy expenditure (TEE)
- TEE – Resting Metabolic Rate = PAEE
Process
1. person drinks does of doubly water
2. does mixes into body
3. O2 releases CO2 from breath and H2O from perspiration in the form of urine
4. Urine sample measured for 18O and 2H
Pros → Unobtrusive and noninvasive,Gold standard for estimating free-living PAEE
Cons→ Cost, Only provides information on total EE (need information about resting energy expenditure)
The short questionnaire to assess health enhancing (SQUASH) physical activity in adolescents: A validation using doubly labeled water. ( Nerissa Campbell + colleagues including Harry Prapavessis )
- Assessing the difference between doubly labeled water vs questionnaire to determine what is more valid
17 adolescent ( 9 females; mean age 17.5)
TEE was measured during the nine days with DLW
Urine samples samples collected on days 1, 5, and 9
Day 10: SQUASH assessed commuting activities, Leisure time activities, household activities, and activities at work and school over the last 9 days
Results --> Slight under estimation from squash to DWL
Bland Altman method
Technique used to compare measurement
- Widely used in any research method used to compare and see superior vs inferior methods
- Zero represent less lines of fit, anything near zero of alls on zero shows strong measure of agreement
- Therefore from this graph there are people who are underestimating and overestimating
- Must average the DATA
Conclusion → when using highly active adolescents, the SQUASH is a valid self-reported tool for measuring PAEE
Recommendations → before the SQUASH can be recommended as a valid questionnaire for assessing PAEE, these finding need to be replicated in larger more diverse samples
Implications → intervention efforts designed to help children achieve a healthy energy balance are only as good as the instruments that are used to measure PAEE. Self-reported instruments to measure PAEE should be short and simple so that they can used in large population based studies
What was Lancet by Morris et al in 1953 discovery and why is it important
First to discover evidence that inactivity is bad for you
Does physical activity attenuate, or even eliminate, the detrimental association of sitting time with mortality? A harmonized meta analysis of data from more than 1 million men and women (Lancet 2016)
- assessed via meta analyses on joint association of sitting time and physical activity with all-cause mortalilty
y-axis: hazzard ratio
x-axis: complex of diffent PA
Nul = 1
- Only people at the null line are those spending 60-75 min and therefore have best expectancy
- If you want to reduce risk of death you don’t just need to reduce sedentary movement but also need to increase PA
In addition to promoting reductions in sedentary behaviors, these results indicate that a strong public health focus should remain on increasing levels of MVP, irrespective of the amount of time people spend sitting in a day because of educational or occupational constraints should aim for the high end of the MVPS recommendations, not the low end
Wilmot et al. (2012). Sedentary time in adults and the association with diabetes, cardiovascular disease and death: systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia, 55(11), 895-905
- 18 studies, 794,577 participants
- Compared “greatest sedentary time” with “lowest”
Diabetes 10 studies
Irresepective of PA level --> those who spent the most time sitting were more then TWO TIMES more likey to havr or develop diabetes.
Caridovascular mortality 8 studies
those who spent more time sitting were almost twice as likley to dies from CVD
All cause mortalilty 8 studies
those who spent more time sitting were one and a half more likley to die over the course of the study
Hamburg et al. (2007)
Reduced metabolic health after 5 days of bed rest in healthy young adults (Mean age = 30.7 years)
- assessed fasting, insulin resistance, and trigyserides
Bestrest proved to have a direct effect on metabolic health
(Sjogren et al., 2014, BJSM)
Scientists have found that the less time people spend sitting, the longer their telomeres
(Michelle Kilpatrick + colleagues )
Cross-sectional association between sitting at work and psychological distress:reducing sitting time may benefit mental health
Colley et al., 2011
canaidan adults sped 9.7 hr of there dailey waking hour sedentary
- Spending more time sedentary then sleeping
- Light PA would reduce sedentary significantly
Canadian Sedentary Behavior Guidelines
- Limiting sedentary time to 8 hours or less, which includes
- No more than 3 hours of recreational screen time, and Breaking up long periods of sitting as often as possible
- Getting 7 to 9 hours of good-quality sleep on a regular basis, with consistent bed and wake-up times
- Replacing sedentary behavior with additional physical activity and trading light physical activity for more moderate to vigorous physical activity, while preserving sufficient sleep, can provide greater health benefits.
- Progressing towards any of these targets will result in some health benefits.
Relationship between the evidence and the behavior
More we know about exercise less we are doing anything about it
Physical activity of canadian adults: accelerometer results from the 2007 to 2009 canadian health measures survey (Rachel C. Colley + colleagues)
15% adults accumulate 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous PA per week
Physical activity of canadian adults: accelerometer results from the 2007 to 2009 canadian health measures survey (Rachel C. Colley + colleagues)
15% adults accumulate 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous PA per week
Healy et al. 2008 → Breaks in sedentary time
ASSESSED
Lower
- Waist circumference
- Systolic blood pressure
- Glucose
- Insulin
- Triglycerides
Higher
- HDL-cholesterol
4 diffrent quanities of breaks per hour
Q4 = every hour 2-4 min breaks = lowest circumference, lower plasma glucose, triglycerides
Dunstan et al. (2012)
Breaks improve glucose levels and insulin levels
(Dale S. Bone + colleagues)
B-Mobile - A smartphone-based intervention to reduce sedentary time in overweight/obese individuals: A within-subjects experimental trial.
Intervention: 3 minute breaks after 30 minutes of sitting:
Results: 47 minute reduction from 593 minutes of daily sitting (6% reduction).
Conclusion: The smartphone-based intervention significantly reduced SED. Prompting frequent short activity breaks is an effective way to decrease SED. Future work should
determine whether these SED reductions can be maintained long-term
Evaluation of sit-stand workstations in an office setting: a randomized controlled trial (Lee E.F. Graves + colleagues)
Background
- Excessive sitting time is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease mortality independent or physical activity
- Study aims to evaluate the sit-stand workstation on sitting time and vascular, metaboli, and musculoskeletal outcomes of office worker and to investigate woker station acceptability
Conclusion
- Short term use of sit stand workstation lead to beneficial improvements in cardioembolic risk parameters in asymptomatic office worker, therefore in im-lemented over longer period of time may result in prevention and reduction of cardiometabolic risk in large proportion of the working population
(Dianne A.C.M. Commissaris + colleges)
Effects of standing and three dynamic workstations on computer task performance and cognitive function tests
- Frequent breaks can’t cause distraction and less efficient/effective work
(Thomas Karakolis, Jack P. Callaghan)
The Impact of sit - stand office workstations on worker discomfort and productivity: A review
- Can mitigate discomfort due do sitting and not cause it
Increasing non sedentary behaviors in university students using text messages: randomized controlled trials (Emma Cotten; Harry Prapavessis)
- Text message program for uni students to remind them to sit less during the day
Why text messages →
- Widely accessible
- Able to control when participants receiver messages
- Proven to work with other health behaviors
- Smoking, diabetes managements, increase PA, healthy diet
- 96% of undergrad owned a cell phone in 2011
Current Study →
- Aim: the effective of text messages as a way to reduce sedentary behaviors in university students
- Text messages aim to increase break behavior and self efficiency
Methods - Participants →
- 61 females and 21 males
- 82.9% undergrad students
- Mean BMI = 23.8 (3.6)
- Mean Age = 21.3 (5.1)
- E-mails were sent to various departments
Methods and measures →
- Demographics
- Self-efficacy and Break Behavior
- Sedentary and Light intensity physical activity questionnaire (SLIPA)
- Physical Activity Recall
Text
intervention: mix of challenges, facts and reminders send twice daily, & tailored
Control: random health/food facts and tips
You challenge is to get up doe five minutes every 45 minutes this week
- Have you spent a long time sitting today? Why not for a nice long walk after dinner?
Raw pumpkin seeds contain essential fatty acid and beneficial proteins
RESULTS WERE ONLY SEEN AT 4-6 WEEKS
Result summary →
- Intervention group improved in all behaviors
- Plausible intervention
- Self efficacy cognition correlated with target behaviors
Courneya & Carron (1990): Rules
Examined → the impact of batting last on the HA in slow pitch
Recorded → 6446 league game (double headers; each team batted last in one game)
Controlled for → Travel - distance = for both teams, Crowns - access equal for both teams, Learning/Familiarity - neutral sites
NO HOME ADVANTAGE FOUND FOR BATTING LAST
Courneya & Carron (1991), Pace & Carron (1992):Travel
Examined → the impact of travel on HA in the NHL
Recorded → Distance traveled, No. of time zones crosses, Direction of travel, No. days between games, No. successive games at home, No. successive games on road, Season game no., Interactions
THE INTERACTION FOR NO. OF THE TIME ZONES CROSSED X TIMES BETWEEN GAMES EXPLAINED 1% OF VARIANCE IN HA
Agnew & Carron (1994): Crowd
Examined → the impact of crowd factors on the HA in Major Junior A hockey
Recorded → crown size, crown density, division rivalry, interactions
CROWN DENSITY EXPLAINED 1% VARIANCE IN THE HA
Dowie (1982): Learning
Compared → HA of NHL teams with smallest and largest playing surfaces VS. the rest of the league
Found → A small/large surface + 65.6%, HA rest of league = 64.5%
Zeller & Jurkovac (1988): Learning/Crowd
Compared → win/loss in domed versus open air stadia
Examined → 35000 major league games
Found → domed: won 10.5% more games at home than on the road, Open air: won 7.2% more games at home than on the road
Terry, Walrond, & Carron (1998): Competitors’ States
Examined → The impact of game location on rugby competitions' precompetitive psychological states
Measures → confidence, mood
Found → Significant difference in competitors psychological states at home vs away
Because competitors are more confident when playing at home, they believe they will be more successful and as suh play better at home as part of the self fulfilling philosophy
Dennis & Carron (1988a): Coaches’ states
Examined→ the impact of game location on NHL and major Jr.-A coaches’ precompetitive psychological states
Measure → confidence, mood states, irritability, nervousness, enthusiasm, anger sociability
Found→ no found difference in mood states at home versus away, coaches expressed significantly more confidence for home games
Dennis & Carron (1998a): coaches’ strategies
Examined→ the impacts of game location on coaching decisions in NHL and major junior A coaches
Measured→ the degree to which coaches strategy involves an assertive fore-checking style at home vs away
Found → coaches reported they used more defensive for-checking approach on the road that at home
Wolfson and Neave
- studied under 19 UK premiership players
Method → saliva samples one hour before three training and two away games and two home games. Players were also matched with two separate opposition squads: one a bitter rival, and one classed as a moderate rival
Results → players’ testosterone levels were similar between training and away matches, but 40% – 67% higher for home matches (dependent on the match rival)
Dennis & Carron (1998b): Team behavior
Examined → the impact of game location on team fore-cehcing in the NHL
Measured → video analysis of 45 NHL games
Found → a moe defensive fore-checking approach was adopted on the road than at home
Lehman & Reifman (1987): examined HA in fouls and players status
Method → used LA Lakers’ 1984 - 85 season, Fouls called on “starts: at homeVS away, Foul called on “non starters” home VS. away
Found → star: sign. Less fouls called at home, Non-stars: no diff. In fouls at home vs. away
Officiating bias Neville et al. (1996)
Method→ examiner english and soccer officials subjective decisions (e.g., penalties and sending off)
Results → officials made more subjective decisions (e.g., penalties and sending off) in favor of the home side, and the observed imbalance appear to increase in divisions with larger crowds
- in order to help explain why officals make more subjective decisions in favor of the home team Nevill et al (1999) investigated weather a crown reactions to various tackles/challanges in soccer were able to influence knowlageable observes opinions of what should be the correct decision
Neville at al. (1999)
Method → 11 semi professional referees viewed 52 tackles/challenges from a televised football match of which 26 were made by the home player and 26 mabe by the visiting player. Half the refers observed the video of there's events in the presence of background crowd noise while the other half observed the video with not background crowd noise
Results → noise of the crowd influenced observers to award fewer fouls against home players, and more fouls against away players when compared with the groups receiving only visual stimulus. This result was echoed by the match referee.
Dennis & Carron (1998b): Officiating Bias
Examined → the impact of game location on team penalties not called by official in the NHL
Measured → video analysis of 82 teams. No. of no-calls measured
Found → no evidence o =d officiating bias in the NHL
Lancet 2016
Does physical activity attenuate, or even eliminate, the detrimental association of sitting time with mortality? A harmonized meta analysis of data from more than 1 million men and women
X- Axis is complex with diffrent quanitites of PA
Y- Axis is a hazard ratio
- Nul = 1
- Only people at the null line are those spending 60-75 min and therefore have best expectancy
- If you want to reduce risk of death you don’t just need to reduce sedentary movement but also need to increase PA
In addition to promoting reductions in sedentary behaviors, these results indicate that a strong public health focus should remain on increasing levels of MVPA, irrespective of the amount of time people spend sitting in a day because of educational or occupational constraints should aim for the high end of the MVPA recommendations, not the low end
Self-regulation training, state anxiety, and sport performance: a psychophysiological case study (Prapavessis et al., 1992, TSP)
Background:
- Considerable research attention has been given to assess the impact of specific intervention strategies on modifying emotions and improving subsequent sport performance
Advantages:
- Emphasis is on helping the individual or organization
- Provides an in-depth analysis of how the variables of interest affect each other
- Potentially more informative
- Potentially less expensive
Competitive anxiety -sport performance findings:
- equivocal/uncertain/questionable in nature
Possible reasons -->
- Operational definitions of anxiety and performance
- Individual differences (intra subject vs. inter group variation)
Mace (1990)
1) athletes must demonstrate symptoms of anxiety that are detrimental to performance
2) the effectiveness of the intervention is enhanced if a considerable amount of time is devoted to the specific needs of the athlete
3) training and testing conditions should simulate the conditions under which the athlete must perform
Selection of athlete
- 20 year old male state-level small-bore rifle shooter
- Recommended by the coaching director
- Rated controlling state-anxiety (both cognitive and somatic) as his worst mental skill
- Somatic anxiety manifested itself primarily through accelerated heart rate and excessive muscle tension
Dependent measure - state anxsiety
Performance
- Distance from the center of the bullet hole to the center of the target shot then averaging these error scores
Treatment Procedure
- Preliminary session (minimize stress sensitivity)
- Baseline (on site during a real competition)
- Intervention (self-regulation program—12 sessions over a 6 week period; breathing and stretching, progressive muscle relaxation, thought stoppage, ECG biofeedback—summarized into audiotapes)
- Post Intervention (on site during another real competition)
Results
Self reported cognitive anxiety → treatment group is much lower cognitive anxiety thought and levels stay pretty level and even
Self-report somatic anxiety → self reported somatic anxiety is much lower in the treatment group andresult stay steady though all rounds
Self-report state confidence → treatment group is higher thought and increases throughout rounds
Urinary noradrenaline → substantially lower for treatment group
Urinary adrenaline → substantially lower for treatment group
Accelerometry (Gun vibration) → lower in treatment group
HR → treatment group higher HR round one and round three
Forearm (EMG) → higher for treatment group
Performance error → lower in treatment group throughout all rounds
Limitations
- Expectant effect
- Generalization of findings
Social Validation of treatment effect
- Are the consumers of the intervention satisfaction with the results obtained
Conclusion
- A multi-method self-regulation intervention program reduced state anxiety (for most anxiety indices) and improved performance for an elite rifle shooter
Jordent and Hartman
They compared the following scenarios:
- The shooter’s team was down by a goal and he had to make the kick to tie; if he missed, the team would lose
- The shooter’s team was tied, and he did not have to make the shot, but if he did, the team would win the game
Results:
- Jordet and Hartman found that in the first scenario, when missing the kick would cause the team to lose, professional players only converted 62% of those shots.
- However, when conversion would result in a win, kickers were successful 92% of the time!
- Same kick, same distance, same target, but a 30% improvement when the player was shooting to win, and not shooting to lose.
Choking under pressure: the role of fear of negative evaluation (Christopher Mesagno + colleagues)
Objective → conceptual models and choking under pressure have been proposed but the role of negative evaluation remains unknown. Determined of fear of negative evaluation
(FNE) leads to athletes choking
Fear of negative evaluation (FNE): Predisposes people toward expectations that negative evaluation about public and private aspects of the self will occur, leaving anxiety unbated by coping skill. Therefore it leads to choking.
Design →
- 138 basketball players
- Pre Selection stage involving questionnaires
- Athletes who were considered low and high FNE were selected
- 34 athletes
- Asked to shoot from five diffrent areas of the court under low and high pressure phases
- Shooting performance was evaluated out of 50 shots
Procedure →
Familiarization: Completed CSAI (cognitive and somatic state anxiety); 10 warm up shots; and 50 regular shots in a “low pressure” situation—researcher was the only person present
Low pressure: identical to familiarization but named differently—participants are generally more nervous when they arrive for a research experiment
High pressure: performance-contingent monetary incentive-$5 dollars each shot made; video camera and audience presence
- Participants counterbalanced into low and high pressure
- Made sure there was no preparation time differences between conditions (time taken to receive the ball to when the ball is released)
Conclusions→ FNE is an important psychological characteristic of the choking susceptible athlete
Anxiety, attentional control, and performance impairment in penalty kicks (Mark R. Wilson + colleagues)
Background →
- Explanations for visuo-motor performance impairments caused by increased anxiety have been linked to disruptions of attention control (see review by Wilson, 2008)
- It is proposed through Attention Control Theory (ACT, Eysenck & Calvo, 1992) that anxious individuals both orient more rapidly to anxiety-inducing stimuli, and disengage from them more slowly
- In the presence of threat-related stimuli, the stimuli attentional system overrides the goal-directed attentional system
Participants →
14 male uni football players
18-22 age
Competitive experience for 8-16 years
Right footed
Normal vision
Penalty kicking was rated between 5-9 out of 10
Design
Low threat condition: research was testing the reliability of the calibration of the eye tracker for football tasks
High threat condition: made aware of a 50 pound prize for the highest accumulated score; leader board with names would be circulated among participants
Measures -->
- state anxiety
- time to first fixation
- total fixation duration
- total # of fixations
- preformance
Procedure→
- Familiarization: 10 kicks at the target goal without goalie
- Fitted with eye-tracker
- 10 kicks in each condition (high vs low)
- Kicks were taken 5 m away from target
- Used same goalie (instructed to save each penalty kick; not to move until the ball is struck)
Conclusion →
- Experienced footballers looked at the goalkeeper significantly earlier and, more often, and for longer periods when anxious, with these changes in attentional control negatively influencing resultant shot placement
- Findings offer a mechanistic explanation as to why kicks are missed in pressure environments
- Interventions that can change this type attention offers
promise for assisting athletes deal with pressure moments
Leary and Koealski’s (1990)
- two component modelTwo discrete processes, each of which operates according to different principles and is affected by different antecedents
Impression Motivation: desire to create a particular impression
Impression Construction: the kind of impression management tactics that are used to make the desired impression
- motivations that people have towards impressions but regardless we also try and think about what other constructs can be done to create a favorable impression
Pioneer Work of Berglas and Jones (1978)
- Undergraduate psychology students volunteered to take two intelligence tests
- After the first test all subjects received feedback that they answered between 70-80% of the questions correctly
- Half the subjects answered solvable questions (contingent success feedback group) while the other half answered unsolvable questions (non-contingent success feedback group)
Following feedback subjects could chose to ingest 1 of 2 drugs before the second IQ test
Activil - enhance intellectual performance
Pantocrin - inhibit performance
As predicted subjects in the non-contingent success group self-handicapped (ingested the drug Pantocrin) to a greater extent than their contingent success counterparts
- In short, by choosing to self-handicap, subjects could blame the drug rather than their lack of ability, should they fail (or do worse on) the re-test.
Rhodewalt (1990)
suggested that self-handicapping tendencies vary across individuals
(Jones & Rhodewalt, 1982)
self handicapping sclate - assessing tendencies
- 25-item and 14-item short form
- Single or multidimensional construct (i.e., excuse-making and diminished effort)
Self-handicapping among competitive athletes (Frederick Rhodewhalt + colleagues ) 1984
Purpose→ examine if there were individual differences among athletes in the extent to which they self-handicap prior to an event that has potential for self-esteem loss (important vs. unimportant events)
RESULTS
assessed at unimportant meets VS important meets
RED → low self handicappers
GREEN → high self handicapper
STUDY 1
Participant →
- 27 members of uni swimming team
- Completed the 25 item Self-handicapping Scale (Jones & Rhodewalt, 1982)
- Tendency to use self-handicapping strategies
- Coaches (blinded to study) evaluated practice effort
Coaches rating of practice effort
- Results suggest that before entering into an important performance situation, low self-handicappers change their behavior (i.e., increased practice effort) whereas high self-handicappers do not……
STUDY 2
Participants →
- 28 male professional golfers
Procedure →
- Completed Self-Handicapping Questionnaire 2-weeks before the first tournament of the season
- On the day prior to each event participants completed questionnaire eliciting practice time, hours worked, physical and personal problems
- Tournaments were ranked in importance from 1-13
Results and overall average practice hours
-Green decreases hrs. of training before important events
-Red increases hrs. of training before important events
Results and practice hours this week
- Within a week red goes to practice much more
Discussion →
- Results from study 1 and 2 provide initial evidence for the utility of an individual difference approach to self-handicapping in athletes
- In both studies there were significant differences in the amount of effort put forth when preparing for an athletic event
- Specifically high self-handicappers withheld effort and practice before important efforts compared to low self-handicappers
Further evidence of reduced practice effort Depp and Harackiewicz (JPSP 1996)
- Males high and low in SHS scores competed against each other in a pinball contest
- Prior to competing, they were given an opportunity to practice a reaction-time task that allegedly would help them perform better in the pinball game
- Tendency for high scorers on the SHS to practice less than low SHS scorers
Assessments for SPA
- Hart, Leary and Rejeski (1989) developed an 11 item Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS)
- Martin et al. (1997) provide evidence for a single 9-item version (the most accepted and widely used version)
Social Physique Anxiety, Body Esteem and Social Anxiety in Bodybuilders and Self-Reported Anabolic Steroid Users (Michael Scherwin + colleagues 1996)
Purpose →
- To examine the relationship between SPA, upper body esteem, social anxiety, and body dissatisfaction in self-reported anabolic steroid using bodybuilders, non-using bodybuilders, active exerciser and non-exercising individuals
Method →
- 185 male participants
* 35 steroid-using bodybuilders
* 50 non-using bodybuilders
*50 athletically active individuals
* 50 non-exercisers
- Completed measures on body dissatisfaction, upper body strength scale, SPA and fear of negative evaluation scale
Conclusions →
- AS-using bodybuilders had significantly lower levels of SPA than the other non-user groups
- AS-using bodybuilders had significantly higher upper body strength ratings than other groups
- Suggest that AS use may play role in increasing positive feelings about upper body features decreasing feelings about SPA
- Suggests that when steroid use is stopped, positive body image may disappear
Social physique anxiety and the type of sport (Haase & Prapavessis2001;JSMS)
Pouropse →
To compare Social Physique Anxiety (SPA) levels between self-presentational and non self-presentational athletes.
Method →
Sample 194 females who represented one of four groups.
Group 1) self-presentational athletes, 31 national level aerobic competitors
Physique is constantly under review; revealing attire, physical impression to judges
Group 2) Weight restricted athletes, 50 national level lightweight rowers
Must be prescribed weight
Group 3) Athlete control - non weight restricted group, 37 national level soccer player
Group 4) Non athlete control, 47 undergraduate psychology students
Measures →
- 9-item version of Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS; Hart et al., 1989) was used to assess concerns that one’s physique may be negatively evaluated by others.
RESULTS -->
- No discernable real significant difference
- One group is not shows specifically higher or lower SPA
Learned Helplessness in Sport ( Harry Prapavessis + colleague)
Can Learned Helplessness Exist in Competitive Sport?
- Built in selection mechanism only allows the most talented and determined to continue (Darwinism)
- This same nature screening mechanism could contribute to the development of helplessness because most athletes eventually will find it progressively difficult to move through the ranks. This lack of progress may be viewed as a sign of lack of ability and for continued success beyond personal control.
Purpose →
- To examine whether athletes have maladaptive achievement patterns associated with learned helplessness
- A second purpose was to examine the attributional dimensions used by athletes exhibiting maladaptive achievement patterns to explain unsuccessful outcomes
Method →
- 31 male and 19 female tennis players from a high performance tennis academy
Maladaptive Achievement Pattern Questionnaire →
- Cognitive (6 items)
•e.g., when you are losing a match do you find that your strategies to change the situation deteriorate or become more sophisticated?
- Motivational (2 items)
•e.g., when you are losing a match do you try harder or less?
- Emotional (4 items)
•e.g., when you are losing a match do you get down emotionally or do you emotionally pick yourself up
Maladaptive Criteria →
- 1 question from each domain had to be endorsed
- At least 4 questions associated with the maladaptive achievement patterns of learned helplessness had to be endorsed
- Endorsement was taken to include a score above 4 on the 7-point scale
- 11 of the 50 players met the maladaptive criteria
Coaches asked to rate players levels of persistence to obtain a behavior measure associated with LH →
- Used a 7 point scale anchored at the two extremes by the descriptors “very persistent and “gives up easily”
- Coaches were blinded to the hypotheses of the study
- All ratings were carried out independently
Found → helpless group were judged by their coaches to be significantly less persistent in their matches than those in the non-helpless group
Implications of coaches ratings
- Provides some support for the validity of the maladaptive beliefs used to categorize players into helpless and non-helpless groups