week 11-12
sex def
biological/physiological differneces
sexuality def
attraction (physical or romantic)
gender def
Cultural meanings and understanings
Internal experience of a gender identity (as male, female, both or neither) and the expression of that identity in social behaviour
Intersex def
Not everyone is born with spesific sets of reproductive organs that correspond to male or female sex
1 person in 2,000 is born intersex
Various responses:
1) Doctors can modify apperence of genitalia and therefore assign a sex and gender
2)This can have an important impact on a childs development
3)Parents are encouraged to let their child decide for themselves
Gender Roles:
Every culture establishes behaviorual norms based on gender =gender roles
Taught in the family
A person can be raised to exhibit "feminine" or "masculine" generded behaviour
People of different sexes can fit (or not) with the expected associated gender roles
"Masculinity" and "femininity" can be understood differently across cultures
Gender identity def
Gender identity begins to form as soon as others interact with an infant. Chidren are dressed in culturally approperiate clothing for their gender and encouraged to behave in accordance with gender norms
Cisgender def
people who experience/express their gender identity as matching their assigned sex
Transgender def
People experience/express their gender identity and/or expression that is associated with another gender (different than the one associted with their assigned sex)
Gender fluid/queer def
People who experience/express their identity along a spectrum
non binary def
accepeted as a natural expression of gender in many places accross the world
ex- a person could self identify as a masculine man or feminine women or other not man not women
Some societies recognize four genders or more
two spirit idenity def
Has been identified across more than 120 indigenous cultures in North America
Individual may be assigned either a male or female sex at birth but they are accepted within the community as a 3rd gender (neither man or women but elements of both)
Ex- Hiira in India and Pakistan, Muxe in Mexico, Bakla in Phillippines, Fakaleiti in Tonga or Māhū in Hawaii or Tahiti.
sexual orientation def
combination of biological/cultural factors play into sexual orientation
Variable acceptance of orientations other than heterosexuaity across cultures
In some instances, consensual same sex relations may result in exucution
Heterosexuality def
Romantic/sexual attraction (or sexual behaviour) between partners of the opposite sex
Most common practice but other non heterosexual practices are found everywhere (pansexual, asexual, polysexual, bisexual)
Gender identity is independent from sexual orientaion
Homosexuality def
romantic/sexual attraction (or sexual behaviours) between partners of the same sex
Homosexual practices are essential to the functioning society in certain cultures (ex- Etoro in Papua New Guinea or ancient greeks)
Hypothese def
Explain why a culture would accept or reject homosexuality
1) Ecological hypothesis- allowing homosexuality and non binary gender means that not every couple will have children =stable population + sufficent food
2) Socio-cultural hypothesis- Correlation between prohibition of abortion or infanticide and rejection of homosexuaity
Body Modifications:
People express their identity (Social status, age, relationship status) and make themselves look attractive using makeup, piercings, scars and other modifications
Often used to signal that the individual has reached a certain part of their life
ex- Maori earn the right to "mako" tattoos which contains info about the wearers tribal/family history
Marriage:
Love?-Not necessarily
Social, political and economic have been primary reasons for marriages
Marriages look differnet across cultures
Broadly, marriage is a partnership between familes based on an exchange of partners
Contributes to survival
Family of orientation vs family of procreation
3 main charecteristics of marriage:
1-Sexual access between marriage partners
2-Regulation of the sexual division of labour
3-Support of legitimacy of children in society
Monogamy def
most common in the world between a man and a women (but some same sex unions are also possible)
Widespread in Western cultures because of their influences of Catholicism
Monogamy works well with indeptedence training
Serial Monogamy def
marriage to one partner at a time with a succession of partners
Polygamy def
multiple spouses (wives or husbands)
Has social, economic and political functions
Polyamory def
multiple partners and not married
Polygyny def
Two wives or more at the same time
Most common polygamous relationship
It is expsensive and therefore not accessable to all men within a culture that practices polygyny
Biocultural advantage = allows the family to grow quickly (ex-Turkana tribe in East Africa) Many polygynous societies do not afford women that same rights as men and can be treated as property.
Polyandry def
Two husbands or more at a time (less common)
Biocultural advantage= Limits the number of offsping of each husband and limits populations in place where survival would be reduced by large populations (ex-Tibet and Nepal)
Exogamy def
Partners come from outside of the group
Creates alliances between families from different communities
Diversifies the gene pool (ex- Tlingit clans)
Endogamy def
Partners come from the same group
Can be seen in societies with strong, ethnic, religious or socio-economic class divisions and endogamy prevents mixing
(EX-Caste system in India or royal families)
Can lead to severe genetic issues due to reduced genestic diversity
Spouses:
Too much proximity of problamatic =incest taboo
Example of cultural universal
How cultures define kinship affects how the taboo operates
Anthropologists believe that incest taboo is universal because:
1)Children raised together develop sexual aversion toward one another (Westermarck Effect)
2)Social roles need to be clear, otherwise social interactions are undermined
3)Marrying outside of your own family expands the social network
4)Too much proximity results in negative biological effects and reduces the chance ofm species surival.
Household def
domestic unit of residece
Household members are often (but not nesesarily) a family and all participate in tasks
Ex- young Mundurucū men living in the mens house form of household
Differnet types of residenece patterns
1) Nuclear family (two generations)
Neological (couple moves to their own households after marriage)
2)Extended family- Blood related members will bring their spouse to live with their family of orinentation
3)Matrilocal residence- When husbands join their wives family of orientation
4)Patrilocal residence- When wives join their husbands famiy of orientation
Marriage as economic exxchange:
Marriage is fundementally an economic exchange
Involves compenstaion depending on which family "looses" or "gains" a member
Bride price def
If the bride becomes a resident in her husbands hosehold of orgin, her family is compensated and its often paid in a series of gifts or services
Dowery def
If the groom goes to live with the brides family of orientation, the grooms family is compensated
-A portion of the brides inheriteance given early
-Dowery is also seen in societies practicing neological residence patterns
-Sometimes practiced in patrilocal societies so that the girls can marry into higher social classes
Arragnged marriage def
Parents can arrange the marriages of their children
Was the norm for most of human history
Different from a forced marriage
Kinship def
How descent is understood has an impact on kinship relations
Provides stricture for how to regulate sexual activity, how to raise children and divide labour
Every society has rules associated to family and household organziation
Kinship can go beyond blood or marriage relations (true kinship)
Fictive kinship def
Family of choice or a constricted "family" of unrelated indviduals
Nurture kinship def
relationships built upon mutual caring and attachement
Descent group def
Group of people who trace their decent from a particular ancestor. Dividing the extended familly based on desent groups allows different rights/responsibilties to be assigned to different family members (based on who they descent from)
2 ways to trace descent:
1)Unilineal descent:
Geneology is traced through one side of the family (patrilineal aka fathers family or matrilineal aka mothers family)
2)Bilateral descent:
Geneology is traced through both the mother and fathers line