Final Exam Questions
What attributes were individuals presumed to possess as described in the Classical School of Criminology?
All of these options (free will, rational, and hedonistic calculus)
How do longitudinal studies contribute to our understanding of the causal factors of criminal behavior?
They allow for the observation of temporal order
How does Robert Martinson’s statement reflect the perceived limitations of rehabilitation programs?
Indicates a significant flaw in the existing strategies in reducing recidivism
What is Routine Activity Theory? →macro-level measurement
For crime to be committed there must be: a target, motivated offender, and a lack of guardians
Cesare Lombroso identified which as the main cause of crime?
Biological causes
What is considered the main contribution of Cesare Lombroso to criminology?
His use of scientific methods
What is the problem with the “equal environments assumption” in twin studies?
It assumes that twins share the same home environment
In Schwartz's (2021) article on the effect of head injury on criminal justice outcomes, the author found that head injury leads to an increase in self-reported offending but NOT in official arrest records. Why could this be the case?
Self-reported data is a more reliable measure of behavior than arrest
In the field of criminology, how well do candidate gene studies (MAOA gene and crime) find support through replication efforts?
Generally considered inconclusive due to lack of successful replication
What is a meta-analysis?
A method to combine results from multiple independent studies
During the age of enlightenment, views changed about various aspect of societal order including:
Religion, the state, and human nature.
According to the lectures, a theory can describe relationships at which levels?
Both Macro and Micro
Which theory focuses on traits and their variations across individuals?
Psychological theories
According to behavioral genetics, heritability estimates for most traits generally range from:
30% to 70%
What does the Social Disorganization Theory primarily focus on?
The influence of the environment and neighborhood on crime.
Which factor did NOT contribute to social disorganization according to Shaw and McKay?
Rapid technological advancements leading to more opportunity.
What was the primary shift brought about by the Chicago school of criminology (social disorganization theory)?
From individual explanations of crime to community-based theories based on environmental characteristics.
Which zone, per Burgess’s concentric zone model, was densely populated with poor living conditions and was the first residence for many immigrants?
Zone 2: The Zone in Transition.
What does "Informal social control" as mentioned in the text refer to?
The capacity of the community residents to intervene in inappropriate activities.
Which of the following statements best represents a concern with Social Disorganization Theory as presented in the text?
There is measurement ambiguity and lack of clarity associated with the theory.
According to Classical Strain Theory, which of the following best describes the difference between societal goals and the means to achieve them, resulting in crime?
There is a disjuncture between goals & means.
General Strain Theory further specifies Classical Strain Theory by focusing on:
Sources of strain including failure to achieve goals or exposure to unpleasant events .
Why might someone commit a crime according to classical strain theory?
As a result of a gap between aspirations and expectations.
According to Sutherland's Differential Association, how is crime learned?
Through interaction with others.
In Sutherland’s propositions, what plays a significant role in the learning of criminal behavior?
The balance of definitions favorable to crime.
According to Sutherland, which of the following is NOT a criterion that affects the impact of associations?
Societal status
How did Akers and Burgess enhance the Differential Association Theory with their Social Learning Theory?
By adding elements of operant conditioning and integrating psychological components
Akers's Social Learning Theory is an extension of which earlier theory?
Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory.
In the context of Akers's Social Learning Theory, what does "Differential Association" refer to?
The different interpersonal relationships one can have with other individuals.
Which component of the Social Learning Theory focuses on the rewards and punishments associated with behaviors?
Differential reinforcement.
Control theories primarily seek to answer which of the following questions?
Why do people not commit crime?
According to control theories, what is inherent in all human beings?
Criminal propensity
If self-control is not inculcated by the age of 8, it suggests that:
The child will have relatively lower self-control than peers who were better socialized.
Self-Control Theory suggests that people with low self-control are likely to exhibit behaviors such as:
Impulsivity and risk-seeking.
For self-control to be inculcated in an individual, parents must:
Recognize deviant behavior and punish appropriately.
The Age-Crime Curve in the context of Self-Control Theory indicates that:
At some point, every individual, including those with low self-control, is less likely to commit crime.
How do analogous behaviors relate to the concept of self-control in the Self-Control Theory?
Analogous behaviors are a byproduct of low self-control.
Which of the following is NOT a component of self-control as described in Gottfredson and Hirschi’s Self-Control Theory?
High attention to detail
According to the labeling theory, who creates laws and rules?
Authorities and those with power
What is a primary characteristic of laws, from a labeling perspective?
They are socially constructed and subject to change
What does the labeling perspective consider crime to be?
A social construct
Labeling theory suggests that society's rules are:
Sometimes unjust and skewed
How does the labeling perspective often view the role of punishment systems?
As exacerbating problems
According to labeling theory, what often results from being labeled a criminal?
Further engagement in criminal behavior
The concept of “Primary Deviance” in labeling theory refers to:
Initial rule-breaking that may lead to a deviant label
Secondary deviance, according to labeling theory, is characterized by:
Acceptance of a deviant label leading to further deviance
Labeling theory emphasizes that criminal behavior is:
Influenced by societal reactions and labels
Braithwaite’s theory of shaming and crime differentiates between:
Stigmatizing and reintegrative shaming
According to Braithwaite, reintegrative shaming involves:
Recognizing the individual while disapproving the act
Labeling theory’s view on policy implications suggests:
Minimizing intervention in individuals’ lives
Feminist criminology challenges which of the following?
Traditional theories of criminology
Which wave of feminism is associated with workplace discrimination and reproductive rights?
Second wave
What does ‘add-and-stir’ research refer to in feminist criminology?
Integrating women into existing theories without altering them
What is the Liberation Thesis in feminist criminology?
Greater involvement of women in the labor force leads to more crime
According to feminist criminology, what factor significantly affects female criminality?
Social and power dynamics
Feminist criminology suggests that pathways to crime for women often include:
Trauma, abuse, and neglect
What is a key aspect of the third wave of feminism in criminology?
An intersectional perspective
Feminist criminology argues that the criminal justice system’s reaction to female offenders is often:
Varied and influenced by gender
Feminist criminology emphasizes the need for:
Gender-specific theories and risk factors
Which of the following is a characteristic challenge in policing white-collar crime?
Ambiguity in legal and moral status of actions
Corporate crimes can include:
Crimes against humanity and war crimes
The future of white-collar crime research might focus on:
Focusing solely on traditional forms of crime
The involvement of women in top business roles is expected to potentially:
Change the nature of white-collar crime