itp
is the awareness of the sensations, thoughts, and feelings we experience at a given moment. it is our subjective understanding of both the environment around us and our private internal world, an observable to outsiders
consciousness
is a state marked by relatively low levels of physical activity and reduce sensory awareness that is distinct from periods of rest that occurred during wakefulness
sleep
is characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thoughts, and behavior
wakefulness
in _______ consciousness, we are awake and aware of our thoughts, emotions, and perceptions.
waking consciousness
These occur when a person is not fully aware of themselves or their surroundings, often caused by physical or mental changes.
altered state of consciousness
one of the five levels of consciousness: it is everything that you are aware of
conscious
one of the five levels of consciousness: it is when the information you are not currently aware of that you can pull into awareness if needed
preconscious
one of the five levels of consciousness: where memories are outside of awareness and inaccessible
unconscious
one of a five levels of consciousness: automatically bodily functions that occur without awareness and sensation
non-conscious
one of the five levels of consciousness: where the information is out of consciousness and not immediately available to consciousness
subconscious
A deep unconscious state where the person cannot wake up or respond.
coma
Sudden severe confusion, often with restlessness and hallucinations.
delirium
Difficulty in thinking clearly or understanding what's happening.
confusion
A state where a person is confused about where they are or what time it is.
disorientation
A state of sluggishness or lack of energy.
lethargy
A weakened blood vessel in the brain that bursts.
aneurysm
A bacterial or viral infection that affects the brain
brain infection
Abnormal growth of cells in the brain.
brain tumor or injury
A disease that slowly decreases memory and thinking ability.
dementia or alzheimer's disease
Taking drugs that affect the brain's function and awareness.
drug use
A brain disorder that causes sudden seizures.
epilepsy
When the body overheats, leading to confusion or unconsciousness.
heatstroke
Heart disease refers to any problem affecting the heart, such as coronary artery disease, arrhythmia, and heart failure.
heart disease
When the brain doesn't get enough oxygen, it can cause unconsciousness.
lack of oxygen to the brain
When glucose levels drop too low, it can cause confusion or fainting.
low blood sugar
Harmful substances entering the body, affecting consciousness.
poisoning
A serious drop in blood flow, causing fainting or unconsciousness.
shock
When blood flow to the brain is blocked, leading to sudden loss of function or consciousness.
stroke
are internal rhythms of biological activity- a recurring, cyclical patterns of bodily changes.
biological rhythm
is a biological rhythm that takes place over a period of 24 hours
circadian rhythm
is the tendency to maintain a balance, are optimal level within a biological system
homeostasis
the brain's clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus known as the _____________?
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
it is an endocrine structure located inside the brain that release melatonin, that is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and the immune system during sleep
pineal gland
this individual differences in circadian patterns of activity are known as a person's _________. where some people would say they are morning people, while others would consider themselves to be night owls
chronotype
the process of deliberately redirecting our attention away from one thing to something else is called ____________
selective inattention
this process—when we watch and then deliberately control our stream of consciousness is called _________
selective attention
a psychological phenomenon that occurs when someone fails to notice something that is clearly visible because they are focusing on something else
inattentional blindness
during different states of consciousness, our neurons in our brains are communicating, producing electrical pulses known as ________
brain waves
These waves occur when you are actively engaged in problem solving or studying, and are associated with strong mental activity.
gamma brain
These waves occur when you are active and concentrating, and are associated with alertness and logic.
beta brain
These waves occur when you are relaxed, such as when you are daydreaming or sleeping, and are associated with passive attention. basically the resting state for the brain
alpha brain
These waves occur during deep meditation, light sleep, and hypnosis, and are associated with intuition and spiritual connection. slower in frequency and greater in amplitude than alpha waves
theta brain
These waves occur during deep, dreamless sleep, and are essential for the body's healing and restoration process.
delta brain
what stage of sleep is where the body relaxes, breathing slows, and the brain waves low and show irregular alpha waves
stage 1
this stage is where actually the first stage of real sleep. in this stage, the sleeper relaxes more deeply and the brain shows theta waves
stage 2
the appearance of sudden burst of rapid brain waves is called ________
sleep spindles
known as deep sleep. the brain emits large low delta waves. during this stage, it is difficult to wake someone up. this is the stage in which sleep walking occurs
stage 3
this stage of sleep is often cold paradoxical sleep. because slipper is definitely asleep, but their bodies is in a state of rapid arousal.. dreams in the stage are often emotional, vivid and usually story-like
REM
it is a sleep disorder where a person experience persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep
insomnia
asleep disorder characterized by poses in breathing that last at least 10 seconds during sleep
sleep apnea
is a sleep disorder characterized by extreme daytime sleepiness with frequent episodes of nodding off. the syndrome may also be accompanied by attacks of cataplexy, in which the individual loses muscle tone, resulting in a partial or complete collapse.
narcolepsy
is a disruptive sleep disorder, most frequently experienced in childhood, that may involve loud screens and intense panic. the sufferer cannot wake from sleep even though he or she is trying to
sleep terror
sleep disorder in which the suffer grinds his teeth during sleep
bruxism
a sleep disorder in which the sufferer reports an itching, burning, or otherwise uncomfortable feeling in his legs usually exacerbated when resting or sleep
restless leg syndrome
sleep disorder in which involves sudden involuntary movement of the limbs.
periodic limb movement disorder
this theory says that sleep evolve as an adaptation to conserve energy and provide protection from predators
one theory-evolutionary theory
this sleep theory points out how sleep plays an important role in the process of growth and development
second viewpoints
this sleep theory explains why we sleep as a time for physical and mental recovery
third theory- repare and restoration theory
sleep theory that suggest sleep is also important for learning and memory
fourth-information consolidation theory
theory that was created by sigmund freud where he proposed that dreams represent our unconscious wishes and thoughts that could be threatening if considered during conscious awareness
wish fulfillment theory
pride believe dreams have two different components; this is basically the storyline of our dreams: the images, thoughts, and experience
manifest content
freud believe dreams have two different components: one of them refers to hidden aggressive and sexual instincts that we repress from our conscious awareness
latent content
we ironically are more likely to dream of things we are trying our best to ignore. researchers describe this phenomenon as the ____________
dream rebound effect
this theory proposes the dreams are by product of random, spontaneous stimulation of brain cells during sleep, which the brain synthesizes into the coherent patterns known as dreams.
activation-synthesis theory of dreaming
umbrella term for a set of behavioral techniques we can use to alter our consciousness, whether meditating to relax the mind or practicing yoga to manage stress
mindfulness
types of drugs that can lowered awareness can create feelings of relaxations. this triggers the central nervous system to suppress or slow down normal physiological processes including neural activity.
depressants
type of drugs that can high tend awareness and can create feelings of euphoria. this drug basically speed up the central nervous system.
stimulants
types of drugs that altered perception of reality and can create feelings of paranoia. these drugs can lead users to see, hear, smell, or even feel things that aren't actually real.
hallucinogens
type of drug that can be a pain reliever, can cause euphoria, and sleepiness. hi doses can cause death due to respiratory depression. this drug increase dopamine activity in a reward center of the brain, elevating mood, and numbing the pain
opiates
describes a group of techniques generally designed to focus attention entirely on the present
meditation
describes an altered state of consciousness, which includes deep relaxation coupled with a translike state of heightened suggestibility. this brings people into the state of gradually by using set phrases to help people relax their minds and bodies
hypnosis
technique that uses energy to create images of the brain's structure and function
brain imaging
methods offer medical professionals a view of your brain to see if it's structurally and functionally typical.
neuro imaging
the process of organizing and transforming and coming information so that it can be entered into memory either to be stored or to be compared with previously stored information
encoding
the process of retaining information in memory
storage
the process of accessing information stored in memory
retrieval
memory store that holds a large amount of perceptual input for a very brief time, typically less than 1 second. arises because stimulus activates perceptual areas of your brain. it is crucial to attention and memory
sensory memory
also known as immediate memory; memory store that holds relatively little information or only a few seconds but can be prolonged voluntarily
short term memory
the memory system that includes two specialized stms and a central executive that operates on information on the stms to plan, reason or solve a problem
working memory
visual sensory memory that last only a half quarter second
iconic memory
auditory sensory memory that last three to four seconds
echoic memory
tactile; last only two seconds
haptic memory
first solid evidence that stm and ltm are separate and operate differently
ebbinghaus
the first and last item studied are more easily remember than those in the middle
serial position effect
increase memory for the first few stimuli; occurs because we have more time to think about the earlier ones than the later stored in ltm. the tendency to recall information presented at the start of a list better than information at the middle or end
primary effect
a cognitive bias in which those items, ideas, or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those that came first. increase memory for the last few stimuli; stm.
recency effect
memories of the meaning of words, and n general facts about the world
semantic memories
an unusually be bid and detailed memory of a dramatic event
flash bulb memories
memories of events that are associated with particular context
episodic memory
aka declarative memory; memories that can be retrieve voluntarily and brought into stm
explicit memory
aka non declarative memory; memories that are unconscious and cannot be retrievaluntarily and brought into stm but rather predisposed a person to process information or behave in a certain ways in the presence of a specific stimuli
implicit memory
occurs when having perform a task predisposes you to perform the same or an associated task again in the future
primming
stimuli, thoughts, our feelings to trigger are enhance remembering
cues
recall that is better if it occurs in the same psychological state that was present when the information was first encoded
state-dependent retrieval
memories of events or situations that did not, in fact, occur in general. we don't necessarily remember what actually happened but rather we experience a shaving happened
false memories
artificially implanted memories
loftus
some false memories are easier to create anothers
pezdek
failure to process to be remembered information while a not to ensure that it is fully entered into ltm
encoding failure
loss of memory over an entire time span
amnesia
arises after the brain has been damaged by stroke, injury, or disease
organic amnesia
arises after psychological trauma or extreme stress, there is no obvious problem in the brain (intentional taking of amnesia)
functional amnesia
disrupts previous memories
retrograde amnesia
leaves consolidated memories intact, but prevents storing you facts
anterograde amnesia
approach that suggest that our senses precisely, and accurately, reflect the physical world. they provide us with a true, complete, and accurate representation. also known as the blank slate view
objectivist view
approach that suggests that there is no inherent organization to the world, but rather, our brain organizes our perceptions, and we therefore believe the world is, itself, organize. (gestalt view)
subjectivist view
we perceive only within the limits of our nervous system
synthetic view
are most sensitive to light and dark changes, shape and movement and contain only one type of light-sensitive pigment.
rods
are most sensitive to one of three different colors. (green, red, blue)
cones
cell that has two extensions-one axon and one dendrite, it provides a direct link between photoreceptor terminal and ganglion cell dendrites
bipolar cell
receives visual information from photoreceptors via to intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and amacrine cells
ganglion cell
are interneurons, it mediate lateral interactions between bipolar cell terminals and the dendrites of ganglion cell
amacrine cell
mediate lateral interactions between photoreceptor terminals and the dendrites of bipolar cell. they help integrate and regulate the input from multiple photoreceptor cells.
horizontal cells
photoreceptor cell to bipolar cell to ganglion cell-is the major root of information flow from photoreceptors to the optic nerve
direct three-neuron chain
located in the oseceptical lobe of the brain; it is the portion of cerebral cortex that is concerned with basic processing of visual stimuli
primary visual cortex
also called subjective contour, we see edges even though they are not physically present in the stimulus. we see edges even though they are not physically present in the stimulus
illusory contours
specific patterns that we have stored in memory
template approach
propose that the distinctive features for each of the alphabet letters remain constant, whether the letter is handwritten, printed or typed
feature analysis theory
basic assumptions of this theory is that specific view of an object can be represented as an arrangement of simple 3d shapes called geons
recognition by components theory
this approach proposes that we store a small number of use of three dimensional objects rather than just one view
viewer-centered approach
organizes and interprets the stimuli registered by the senses using prior knowledge
perception
highlights the significance of stimulus characteristics while recognizing an object.physical stimuli from the environment are specifically registered on sensory receptors.
buttom up processing
the impact of a person's concepts, expectations, and memory on object recognition is highlighted
top down processing
we fail to detect a change in an object or a scene
change blindness
happens when we are paying attention to some events in a scene, we may fail to notice when an unexpected but completely visible object suddenly appears
inattentional blindness
we perceive a face in terms of its gestalt, or overall quality that transcends its individual elements
face perception
people with this disability cannot recognize human faces visually, dough they perceive other objects relatively normally
prosophagnosia
it is the location in the part of the cortex that is responsible for the initial, most basic visual processing
occipital lobe
it is the location most responsible for face recognition
temporal cortex
behavioral research shows that people are much more accurate in identifying upright faces, compared to upside down faces, this phenomenon is called_________
the face inversion effect
term that refers to the systematic variation in the way that groups of people perform on the same cognitive task
individual differences
people with this psychological disorder typically do not show intense emotions, they may have hallucinations, tends to perform poorly on cognitive task and they may seem to have difficulty in perceiving faces and facial expressions
schizophrenia
is the basic unit of spoken language, such as the sounds a, k, and th
phoneme
refers to the influence of visual information on speech perception, when individuals must integrate both visual and auditory information
mcgurk effect
shows that this region is responsible for other task where sight and sound must be integrated
superior temporal sulcus
also called the speech is special approach, humans are born with a specialized device that allows us to decode speech stimuli
special mechanism approach
argue that we can explain speech perception without proposing any special phonetic module
general mechanism approaches
occurs when one object or event becomes associated with another object or event
associative learning
does not rely on the association between two or more objects or events; occurs when repeated exposure to the same stimulus alters how an animal responds to that stimulus
non associative learning
occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus decreases responsiveness to that stimulus
habituation
occurs when repeated exposure to a stimulus increases responsiveness
sensitization
also called pavlovian conditioning; discovered by russian physiologist ivan pavlov, it is a neutral stimulus becomes paired with a stimulus that causes a reflexive behavior, and in time, is sufficient to produce that behavior
classical conditioning
illicits an automatic response that does not depend on prior learning
unconditioned stimulus
reflexive or automatic response elicited by a US
unconditioned response
an originally neutral stimulus that comes to produce a response evoked by a US after it has been faired enough times with that US
condition stimulus
aka acquisition—response that depends/is conditional on pairings of CS with US; once learned CR occurs when CS is presented alone
conditioned response
when a condition stimulus comes before the unconditioned stimulus the learning process is called_________
forward conditioning
introduces the conditioned stimulus after the unconditioned stimulus ends
backward conditioning
types of forward classical conditioning; presents the CS, followed immediately by the US
delay
types of forward classical conditioning; introduces a time gap between the end of the CS and the start of the US
trace
three types of forward classical conditioning; the two stimuli, CS and US, shows up and disappear at the same time
simultaneous
conditioned stimulus paired with unpleasant unconditioned stimulus that leads organism to avoid conditioned stimulus
avoidance learning
tendency for condition response to be elicited by neutral stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to the condition stimulus when a new stimulus similar to the condition stimulus can evoke the same condition response without the need to condition
stimulus generalization
the more closely the new stimulus resembles the original CS the stronger the response
generalization gradient
the ability to discern between two similar stimuli. it is the ability to distinguish among stimuli that are relatively similar to the CS and to respond only to the actual CS
stimulus discrimination
this type of conditioning doesn't always require repetitions to form. sometimes, one traumatic experience is enough to create associated learning and generalization to other stimuli
fear conditioning
learning is obtained by associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
first order
learning by pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimuli that has previously been converted into a condition stimulus through first order conditioning
second order conditioning
structured and repeated presentation of appeared condition stimulus in circumstances designed to reduce anxiety
systematic desensitization
treatment technique that works repeatedly presenting the patient with a fear eliciting condition stimulus in a planned and systematic way
exposure
the process by which a stimulus and response become associated with the consequences of making the response
operant conditioning
studied behavior by creating a puzzle box, a cage with a latch door that a cat could open by pressing down a pedal inside the cage.
thorndike
actions that subsequently lead to a satisfying state of affairs are more likely to be repeated
law of effect
consequences of a response leads to an increase in the likelihood that the response will occur again when the stimulus is present
reinforcement
circumstance in which a consequence depends on the animals producing the desired response
response contingency
an object or event that, when it follows a response, increases the likelihood that the animal will make that response again when the stimulus is present
reinforcer
a desired reinforcer is presented after, thereby increasing the likelihood of a recurrence of that response in the future
positive reinforcement
an unpleasant object or event is removed after a response, thereby increasing the likelihood of the response in the future
negative reinforcement
an unpleasant object or event is presented after a response which decreases the likelihood of that response in the future
punishment
response leads to an undesired consequence, thereby decreasing the likelihood of the response in the future
positive punishment
occur immediately after the undesired behavior
swift
event/object that is inherently reinforcing
primary reinforcer
event/object that is not inherently reinforcing, but instead has acquired its reinforcing value through learning
secondary reinforcer
given immediately after the decide response is exhibited
immediate reinforcement
given some period of time after the desired response is exhibited
delayed reinforcement
in operant conditioning, the process by which an extinguished, previously reinforce response reappears if there is a period of time after extinction
spontaneous recovery
the gradual process of reinforcing an organism for responses that gets closer to the desired response
shaping
series of relatively simple responses involved in shaping complex response
successive approximations
the acquisition of information that may not be acted on immediately but is stored for later use
cognitive learning
learning that occurs without behavioral indicators
latent learning
learning that occurs when a person or animals suddenly grasp how to solve a problem or how to interpret a pattern of information that incorporates the new knowledge into old knowledge
insight learning
learning that occurs through watching others, not through reinforcement
observational learning
develop social learning theory-emphasizes the fact that much learning occurs in a social content
albert bandura