1. atoms
2.molecules
3. cells
4. tissue
5. organs
6.organ systems
7.organism
are haploid
contain one copy of each autosome and one sex chromosone
23 pairs of homologous chromosones, 22 pairs of non sex, 1 pair of sex chromosones
non sex chromosones
sex chromosones
1. formation of gameates (sperm or egg cells)
2. fertilization (diploid zygote)
3. Mitosis and development (germinal stage, embryonic development)
4. development of multicellular organism
consists of four nucleotide bases
1. Adenine
2.thymine
3. cytosine
4. guanine
carries genetic information depending on sequence
the individual and its apperance/ traits/ and characteristics
chains of amino acids
information is transferred from DNA to an RNA molecule
information is transferred from RNA to a protein through a code that specifies the amino acid sequence
information is transferred from one DNA molecule to another
cellular machinery that make proteins, which are located in the cytoplasm
DNA to DNA; replication
DNA to RNA; transcription
coding strand- carries the gene that encodes the protein of interest, carries the genetic code.
template strand-the complimenytary strand of the coding strand
transcribed as a single stranded molecule, contains the nucleotide uracil anstead of thymine, contains the sugar ribose, processed by the cell so its mature, unstable; degrades easily
the stretch of DNA that occurs between a start codon and a stop codon which can be potentially translated into a protein
determines when and how often transcription occurs
located in between the regulatory region and the protein coding region. RNA polymerase binds to a specific region of DNA called the core promoter
activators- activates transcription
repressors- inhibits transcription
is a result of changes to the DNA of an organism. it contributes to continuous development of the organism/ species. this results in phenotyoic changes
changes to DNA sequence; typically random
organism moves from one population to another; carries genes from one population to another
gene shuffling
a natural gradual porocess that exists throughout all species. selection of genetic variation that imparts in adavantage to that specific environment. elimination of unfavourable genetic variations from the p[opulation
known as selective breeding. Humans, plants and animals have desirable traits and phenotypes so we breed them together on purpose
somatic vs germaline (sex cell) mutations
DNA replication errors
DNA polymerase and proof reading activity
casued by a mutagen like radiation, cigerette smoke, viruses etc
chromosomal mutations and aberrations.
-deletions
-duplications
-inversions
-insertions
-transloaction
point mutations, frameshift mutations
DNA change results in a new mRNA codon that specifies the same amino acid
DNA change results in a new mRNA codon that specifies a different amino acid
DNA change results in a new mRNA codon that is a STOP codon
insertion or deletion of nucleotides into a gene to alter the reading frame of the gene
eaxh gene has a specific position within a chromosone, two loci per gene; one gene per chromosone
different versions of the same gene in nature. For exanple blue and brown eyes
an organism with twi identical copies of an alelle (AA or aa)
an organsim with two non-identical copies of an allele (Aa)
express phenotypes in heterozygous and homozygous genotypes
only express its phenotype in homozygous genotypes (aa)
analyze single gene inheritance patterns and determine probability of offspring genotypes
a non functional protein is produced or no protein is produced
a poorly functioning protein is produced or a reduced amounts of a normally functioning protein is produced
normal phenotype which produces lots of functional protein. unaffected off spring no disease
phenotype produces adequate amounts of functional protein; no disease
phenotype produces no functional proteins; affected/diseased
child with disease. Two normal (heterozygous) parents create a homozygous affected child
two parents that are carriers give each a defective allele to create a child with disease
consists of generations of genes and offsprings etc