Soc 101, Unit 1
What is Sociology?
1. The study of society.
2. A social science involving the study of people, groups, and societies.
3. The study of social behaviors as social beings.
4. Analysis of contact between anonymous individuals on the street, or the study of global social processes.
5. Scientific study of social aggregation (collection of individuals in the same place and time).
6. How do people move through their lives?
General answer: What is Sociology?
The systematic study of human behavior in a social context.
What is the main goal of sociologists?
Identify and explain how personal issues are connected to social structures.
What is a social structure?
A relatively stable pattern of social relations.
What are the three levels of social structures?
1. Microstructures
2. Macrostructures
3. Global structures
What is a microstructure?
Pattern of intimate social relations formed during face-face interactions.
What is a macrostructure?
The pattern of social relations outside and above one's circle of intimates and acquaintances.
What is a global structure?
Patterns of social relations outside and above the national level.
What is an example of a microstructure?
1. Family
2. Impersonal interactions (bumping into someone).
What is an example of a macrostructure?
1. Companies (economic)
2. Schools
3. Government
4. Banks
What is an example of a global structure?
1. NATO
2. World Bank
3. IMF
4. UN
It is related to how 'nations' interact.
What is the sociological imagination?
The ability to see the connection between personal troubles and social structures.
What are the origins of the sociological imagination?
1. Scientific Revolution: Encouraged evidence-based conclusions about society.
2. Democratic Revolution: Suggested people were responsible for creating society; Thus, human intervention was capable of solving social problems.
3. Industrial Revolution: Created a host of social problems, and attracted the attention of social thinkers.
Who is August Comte?
1. He sought to understand the world using a scientific method of research.
2. Coined the term "sociology".
3. The origins of sociology were based upon an 'ideal society'.
Who is Herbert Spencer?
1. Spencer's theories were directly related to different kinds of social changes (Darwinism).
2. Societies evolve in the same way that biological creatures do.
3. He had imperialist ideals. He looked at other nations as uncivilized and considered the British population the peak of evolution. He thought some races evolved better than others.
4. His ideas led to racist actions such as the Eugenics movement.
What is "Social Darwinism"?
Once "lesser" communities or individuals have done what they needed to do in this world, they can be wiped from the Earth.
~Led to forced sterilization of the poor, sick, etc.
In sociology, what is there tension between?
Belief in the importance of science vs. the vision of an ideal society.
What is a theory?
A tentative explanation of some aspect of social life that states how and why certain facts are related.
What is a grand theory?
It tries to encapsulate as much of the social world as possible or it tries to understand society as a whole/ all social actions.
What is a middle-range theory?
This is a more contained theory, which tries to understand a specific phenomenon.
~Tries to explain a chunk of the social world.
What is research?
The process of systematically observing reality to assess the validity of a theory.
~It can be statistical/ numerical, or take a more personal approach.
What are values?
Ideas of what is good or bad.
~Everyone has a different point of view.
~A lot of research surrounds what you believe in.
How is suicide related to sociology?
It is often regarded as a supremely antisocial (contained to an individual) and non-social event.
~ Often focused on an individual's state of mind, rather than the state of societies.
~Looks at what social pressures and actions cause a person to resort to suicide.
Who is Emile DurkHeim?
He believed suicide rates were strongly related to social forces.
~He found the more people with mental issues, the lower the suicide rate, which is the opposite of what he believed would happen.
~Thought suicide rates vary based on social solidarity in different populations.
~Non-reliogous individuals were the most likely to commit suicide, as they lack a strong bond with the people around them.
~ Religious groups interact daily, they are tightly bound. They see the social connections and don't want to hurt the people surrounding them.
What causes a varied suicide rate?
Social solidarity:
1. The degree to which members of a group share beliefs and values.
2. The intensity and frequency of their interactions.
What is the suicide rate in Canada today?
It has substantially increased since the 1960s, among youth.
~Strong social ties have eroded.
~Religious participation has decreased, unemployment is up, and children may experience less intimate social interaction with their parents due to less adult supervision.
What is functionalism?
All human behavior is based upon social relations, such as government.
~This is dependent upon individual-macrostructure relationships.
~Where there is an issue in society, it is because a macro-society has disrupted the equilibrium.
~Macrostructures are meant to protect society from internal threats. As soon as the power of a macrostructure is abused equilibrium is swayed.
What is an example of a macrostructure abusing its power?
Police in North America:
~This leads to distrust from the public and evidently revolt.
What did Talcott Parsons think?
Functionalist: Various institutions must work together to ensure the smooth operation of society as a whole.
~Familes effectively raise new generations (It is one of the smallest, but most important units of society).
~ The military successfully defends society against external threats.
~Schools teach necessary skills and values.
~ Religions help people share a moral code.
Rather, he broke down the institutions and determined what kind of equilibrium they would cause and how they could return to equilibrium.
What did Robert Merton think?
Social structures may have different consequences for different groups of people, and some may be dysfunctional.
~Manifest vs. Latent functions
What is a manifest function?
Obvious and intended effects of a social structure.
~Intended goal
What is a latent function?
Non-obvious and possibly unintended effects of social structures.
~Not always negative, they just may not be intended.
What is an example of manifest vs. latent theory?
Universities:
Manifest: The obvious goal is to teach students, and get young adults to a higher level of intellect.
Latent: Used to meet new people, or find a romantic partner (which is not the main goal, but still something that intends to occur).
What is conflict theory?
Shows how major patterns of inequality produce social stability in some circumstances and social change in others.
~Members of a privileged group seek to maintain advantages, while members of subordinate groups struggle to increase theirs.
~Suggests elimination of privilege will lower the level of conflict and increase human welfare.
~Focused on large, macro-level structure (government).
#2: What is conflict theory?
Society works in a back-and-forth between people who have power and those who don't.
~This leads to revolution.
~Seen in hiearchal systems. They want to eliminate class.
Who originated Conflict Theory?
Karl Marx
What was Karl Marx's thought on the Conflict Theory?
He thought that class conflict (the struggle between classes, to resist or overcome the opposition of other classes) was important for the wellbeing of a society.
What did Max Weber think?
He criticized Marx's argument.
~He thought that looking at society from the perspective of class conflict was a limited view, and that revolution was the only way to evolve was stunted.
~Politics and religion were also important sources of historical change.
~Rapid growth of the service sector allowed for workers to enjoy higher status and income them those in the manufacturing sector.
~Overall, change is caused by more than just the means of production.
What theory did Max Weber believe in?
Conflict theory
Who is C. Wright Mills?
He laid the foundation for modern conflict theory in the 1950s.
~He brought conflict theory to the Americas.
~This was important for American conflicts which arrived in the 1960s: women's rights movements, and workers rights movements.
What is a "cultural turn"?
Conflict theorists became interested in the ways in which elements of culture express domination by the powerful and resistance by others.
~Was based upon the ideas of disillusioned Marxists, whose belief in the communist system lessened as they watched America's lack of Revolution.
~It asks the question: How do capitalist societies remain in power, and how have these societies managed to convince their communities that capitalism is a good thing?
Who is Antonio Gramsci?
He wrote the "Prison Notebooks," where he thought that ideas are what govern how people see the world.
~People tend to believe some things are innately true as it has been ingrained into their heads, and has become "common sense".
~The ruling class has convinced society that some ideals are best for the prosperity of the society.
What is cultural hegemony?
When the values of upper-class dominance become so deeply entrenched that the great majority of people accept it as common sense.
What is an example of hegemony?
The American Dream:
~Americans are made to believe that ANYONE, ANYWHERE, is able to make a life for themselves regardless of social status, economic income, race, etc.
Who is Michel Foucault?
He believed that everything in society is a struggle to maintain or gain power (Marxist idea).
In Foucault's mind, what is every social interaction based upon?
The want to exert one's power.
What were Foucault's ideas on human actions?
He thought that deeply ingrained rules cause us to act a certain way in public or in society, which is instilled into us by culture.
~We "do the right thing" because that is what we are expected to do.
What did Foucault think about oppression?
We internalize the means of our own oppression. The structure of power is so deeply ingrained within us that we tend to oppress ourselves.
~New technologies internalize the means of control, making it so that authorities can easily observe behavior.
What is poststructuralism?
It means every interaction we have is a power play.
~People who do not fit within a convenient category are excluded, and language causes the oppression of those who do not fit in a binary.
What is symbolic interactionism?
1. Focuses on interpersonal communication in micro-level social settings.
2. Emphasising social life is possible only because people attach meaning to things.
3. Stresses that people help to create their social circumstances, not merely react to them.
4. Increases our understanding and tolerance of people who may be different than us.
What is the focus of symbolic interactionism?
Focuses on understanding people's motives and the meaning they attach to things in order to better understand the significance of their actions.
How does symbolic interactionism relate to culture?
We are shaped by our culture, as we also shape the culture itself. It's passed on to the next generation as an evolved form of the previous culture.
What was Max Weber's idea of symbolic interactionism?
His thoughts were on the protestant ethic.
~Calvinsim removed the idea that one had a spot guaranteed in heaven.
~It was something that was chosen from the beginning and could not be changed.
~People thought they had to show that they deserved a spot in heaven, more for themselves than for God's sake, but this idea drove capitalism as everyone strove to get wealthier.
~Increased savings and investment, thus stimulating capital growth.
Was the idea of Protestant Ethics correct?
Nope.
~Although it did change the way people thought and acted in this society.
Who is George Herbert Mead?
Thought an individual's sense of self was formed by how they interacted with others.
~We learn who we are by interacting with other people and standing in their shoes, or rather, seeing ourselves as they see us.
What does it mean to "mirror self"?
React how someone else reacts.
~Reflect on how someone acts towards you.
Who was Erving Goffman?
He thought that everyone wanted to appear in the best light possible in every interaction.
What is Erving Goffman's idea of symbolic interactionism akin to?
Acting
~We move through a wide range of roles, props, stages, and acts depending on the reactions we receive.
~Might not even be aware that you are jumping from role to role.
What is social constructionism?
It is a take on symbolic interactions.
~People assume interactions are natural and innate, but they are sustained and affected by social processes that vary historically and culturally.
What is an example of social constructionism?
Gender roles:
~Despite the idea that women being caretakers is not a "natural" idea that is backed up with any biological evidence, gender roles were pushed upon by religious, and patriarchal beliefs.
What is queer theory?
Denies the very existence of stable labels.
~In society, people tend to split gender and queer identity in a binary, "male or female", or "gay or straight", but there should be a fluidity and variability of people's actual identities.
What have labels been notoriously used for?
To control and dominate people who don't fit into a set binary.
What is the feminist theory?
Male domination and female subordination are not based upon any biological necessities but on the structure of power and social conventions.
~Focuses on various aspects of patriarchy.
Why is gender constructed the way it is?
Because of the way boys and girls are treated as children.
~ We are shaped into who we will grow up to be based on how adults treat us as children.
What is an example of gender stereotypes?
1. Clothing that is worn: "Skirts are for girls"
2. Hair
3. Toys that are played with growing up
What is modern feminism?
Focused on differences in the ways boys and girls are reared; barriers to equal opportunity for education, paid work, and politics; and the unequal division of domestic responsibilities between women and men.
When did the modern feminist movement begin?
The mid-1960s, when the rise of the modern feminist movement displayed the inequalities between men and women.
What is the fashion cycle?
The process by which a particular design, activity, color, etc., comes into some popularity and then phases out.
What would a functionalist think about the fashion cycle?
Fashion performs an important social function of helping maintain an orderly class and function.
~Shows each person's economic prowess or place in society.
What would a conflict theorist think about the fashion cycle?
Fashion cycles are a means for larger industry owners to make money.
~Capatalism provides everything you need to survive, but a one-and-done sale does nothing for the capitalist class.
~They make sure that you always feel like you need to buy new things, so you have to work, and thus people have to work at their factories, and it becomes a cycle.
~Pay for things we don't need because of trends.
What would a symbolic interactionist think about the fashion cycle?
Fashion helps us express our shifting identities.
~Clothing that is worn depends on the context, we wear different clothes for different occasions.
What would a feminist think about the fashion cycle?
Fashion is a form of patriarchy.
~Men's fashion doesn't change very often, but women's fashion trends are constantly changing.
~Trends are often made to fulfill the male gaze, to objectify women.
What do all perspectives allow us to see?
The taken-for-granted part of our world and learn new and surprising things about it.
What happened in the postindustrial revolution?
There is a technology-driven shift to service industries and attendant consequences of that shift for all human activity.
~The bulk of the North American economy is involved in the service industry.
~Fewer and fewer people are actually involved in the making of items we buy, so we rely on other countries.
What is voluntarism?
People are freer to contrast their identities and form social relationships that suit them.
What makes people free in a society?
People are freer through virtually instant global communication, international migration, greater acceptance of sexual diversity and variety of family forms, and growth of ethnically and racially diverse cities.
Where do we see constraints in society?
1. Push to conformity in some spheres of life (e.g., consumerism).
2. New technologies that encourage conformist behavior.
3. Cultural consumption is largely influenced by profit-driven American-owned corporations.
4. We risk the loss of diversity.
What influences our observations in everyday life?
Biases
What does bias lead to?
Often lead us to draw incorrect conclusions about what we see.
What are the 10 common mistakes of unscientific thinking?
1. Tradition
2. Authority
3. Casual observation
4. Overgeneralization
5. Selective Observation.
6. Qualification
7. Illogical reasoning
8. Ego-defence
9. Premature closure of inquiry
10. Mystification
What is tradition?
Heuristics: what has worked in the past.
~We repeat something over and over again if we believe it will work.
What is authority?
Citing a person with higher authority without gathering evidence of your own.
What is casual observation?
It's when we don't pay close enough attention, which leads to generalizations.
~Half paying attention.
What is overgeneralization?
In which a single case in which something occurs causes you to believe that everyone must follow the same rules as that one did.
What is selective observation?
Seeing only what you want to see and ignoring the rest.
What is qualification?
True in most cases, but not in one that you are associated with.
~It is the exception to a true generalization.
~Belief that your case holds more truth then every other case.
What is illogical reasoning?
Seeing patterns that do not exist.
~Seeing a correlation between two things that have no relationship.
What is ego-defence?
Refusing to accept evidence that goes against your own thinking.
What is premature closure of inquiry?
Only investigate on the surface level.
~We see how something happens, but we don't look to see if there is more information on the matter.
What is mystification?
There are greater forces at work than what we can understand.
~Larger than life thinking.
~Blame hard to explain occurrences on a greater force.
What is a sample?
The part of the population of research interest that is selected for analysis.
What is a population?
The entire group about which the researcher wants to generalize.
How can we generalize to a population?
If the sample is representative of the population, generalizations can be made.
What is objectivity?
Ability to produce "objective" results.
~If two people look at the same thing, they should be able to individually come to the same conclusions from the same data.
~Test of consistency, regardless of the observer.
~Another word for intersubjectivity.
What is the importance of viewpoint?
1. Concepts and principles do more than limit reality, they shape it.
2. looking at the world from a particular viewpoint shapes what you experience.
3. Viewpoints matter to the realities experienced.
What does an insider's view provide?
Unique experiences that provide intimate sensitivities and understandings that are inaccessible to outsiders.
What does an outsider's view provide?
Different viewpoint.
~They make observations from a distance.
~Might not have as much knowledge on the matter.
What is qualitative research?
Qualitative research can be defined as the study of the nature of phenomena and is especially appropriate for answering questions of why something is (not) observed
What is quantitative research?
Quantitative research deals with numbers, logic, and an objective stance.
~Because sociology deals with people, this is hard to make numerical and often requires a abstract measurement.
What are the steps to doing qualitative research?
1. Identify a research interest based on concrete experience(s).
2. Collect evidence from one or more cases of the same type.
3. Analyze the cases to identify the common patterns and themes.
4. Provide an interpretation of the patterns and themes that stress the context in which the concrete experiences took place.