Psychology Midterm
Mind/body problem
A fundamental psychological issue: Are mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the physical brain’s subjective experience?
Culture
The beliefs, values, rules, norms, and customs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment.
nature/nurture debate
Stream of consciousness
A phrase coined by William James to describe each person’s continuous series of ever-changing thoughts
nature/nurture debate
Arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture.
Functionalism
An approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose or function of mind and behavior.
Natural selection
In evolutionary theory, the idea that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not
Diversity and inclusion
The value and practice of ensuring that psychological science represents the experiences of all humans
Biopsychosocial model
An approach to psychological science that integrates biological factors, psychological processes, and social-contextual influences in shaping human life and behavior
Distributed practice
Learning material in several bursts over a prolonged time frame.
Retrieval-based learning
Learning new information by repeatedly recalling it from long-term memory
Elaborative interrogation
Learning by asking yourself why a fact is true or a process operates the way it does
Self-explanation
Reflecting on your learning process and trying to make sense of new material in your own words
Interleaved practice
Switching between topics during studying
Accuracy
The degree of which an experimental measure is free from error
Bayesian statistics
A class of statistics that combines existing beliefs (prioris) with new data to update the estimated likelihood that a belief is true (posterior)
Case study
A descriptive research method that involves the intensive examination of an atypical person or organization
Central tendency
A measure that represents the typical response or the behavior of a group as a whole
Confound
Anything that affects a dependent variable and that may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study
Construct validity
The extent to which variables measure what they are supposed to measure
Control group
The participants in an experiment who receive no intervention or who receive an intervention that is unrelated to the independent variable being investigated
Correlation coefficient
A descriptive statistic that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables
Third variable problem
A problem that occurs when the researcher cannot directly manipulate variables; as a result, the researcher cannot be confident that another, unmeasurable variable is not the actual cause of differences in the variables of interest
Variability
In a set of number, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and from the mean
Variable
Something in the world that can bary and that a researcher can manipulate, measure, or both
Central nervous system
The brain and the spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system
All nerve cells in the body that are not part of the central nervous system. The peripheral nervous system includes the somatic and autonomic nervous systems
Neurons
The basic units of the nervous system; cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information. They operate through electrical impulses, communicate with other neurons through chemical signals, and form neural networks
Dendrites
Branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons
Cell body
The site in the neuron where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and integrated
Somatic nervous system
A component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the skin, muscles, and joints
Autonomic nervous system
A component of the peripheral nervous system; it transmits sensory signals and motor signals between the central nervous system and the body’s glands and internal organs
Sympathetic division
A division of the autonomic nervous system; it prepares the body for action.
Parasympathetic division
A division of the autonomic nervous system; it returns the body to its resting state
Cerebellum
A large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brain stem; it is essential for coordinated movement and balance
Working memory
The limited-capacity cognitive system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for current use
Suggestibility
The development of biased memories from misleading information
Source misattribution
Memory distortion that occurs when people misremember the time, place, person, or circumstances involved with a memory
Source amnesia
A type of misattribution that occur when people have a memory for an event but cannot remember where they encountered the information
Serial position effect
The finding that the ability to recall items from a list depends on the order of presentation, such that items presented early or late in the list are remember better than those in the middle
Sensory memory
A memory system that very briefly stores sensory information in close to its original sensory form
Semantic memory
Memory for facts independent of personal experience
Schemas
Cognitive structures in long-term memory that help us perceive, organize, and understand information
Retrograde amnesia
A condition in which people lose past memories, such as memories for events, fact,s people, or even personal information
Retroactive interference
Interference that occurs when new information inhibits the ability to remember old information
Retrieval-induced forgetting
Impairment of the ability to recall an item in the future after receiving a related item from long-term memory
Retrieval cue
Any stimulus that promotes memory recall
Reconsolidation
The re-storage of memory after retrieval
Prospective memory
Remembering to do something at some future time
Procedural memory
A type of implicit memory that involves skills and habits
Proactive interference
Interference that occurs when prior information inhibits the ability to remember new information
Priming
A facilitation in the response to a stimulus due to recent experience with that stimulus or a related stimulus
Persistence
The continual recurrence of unwanted memories
Mnemonics
Learning aids or strategies that improve recall through the use of retrieval cues
Absentmindedness
The inattentive or shallow encoding of events
Amnesia
A deficit in long-term memory – resulting from disease, brain injury or psychological trauma – in which the individual loses the ability to retrieve vast quantities of information
Anterograde amnesia
A condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories
Blocking
The temporary inability to remember something
Chunking
Organizing information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember
Consolidation
The gradual process of memory storage in the brain
Cryptomnesia
A type of misattribution that occurs when people think they have come up with a new idea yet have retrieved a stored idea and failed to attribute the idea to its proper source
Encoding
The process by which the perception of a stimulus or event gets transformed into a memory
Encoding specificity principle
The idea that any stimulus that is encoded along with an experience can later trigger a memory of the experience
Episodic memory
Memory for one’s past experiences that are identified by a time and place
Explicit memory
Memory that is consciously retrieved
Flashbulb memories
Vivid episodic memories for the circumstances in which people first learned of a surprising and consequential or emotionally arousing event
Implicit memory
Memory that is expressed through responses, actions, or reactions
Long-term memory
The storage of information that lasts from minutes to forever
Long-term potentiation
Strengthening of a synaptic connection, making the postsynaptic neurons more easily activated by presynaptic neurons
Memory
The ability to store and retrieve information
Memory bias
The changing of memories over time so that they become consistent with current beliefs or attitudes
False positive
A result that occurs when there is no real effect but a study produces a statistically significant result by chance
HARKing
“Hypothesizing after the results are known” instea dof generating a theory before running the study and analyzing the results
hypothesis
A specific, testable prediction, narrower than the theory it is based on
Independent variable
The variable that is manipulated in a research study
Inferential statistics
Set of procedures that enable researchers to decide whether differences between two or more groups are probably just chance variations or whether they reflect true differences in the populations being compared
Institutional review boards
Groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants
External validity
The degree to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other people, settings, or situations
Internal validity
The degree to which the effects observed in an experiment are due to the independent variable and not to confounds
Mean
A measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers
Median
A measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the lowest and highest values
Meta-analysis
A “study of studies” that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion
mode
A measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set of numbers
Naturalistic observation
A type of descriptive study in which the researcher is a passive observer, separated from the situation and making no attempt to change or alter ongoing behavior
Operational definition
A definition that qualifies (describes) and quantifies (measures) a variable so the variable can be understood objectively
Participant observation
A type of descriptive study in which the researcher is involved in the situation
P-hacking
Testing the same hypothesis using statistical tests in different variations until one produces a statistically significant result
Population
Everyone in the group or experimenter is interested in
Preregistration
Documenting a study’s hypotheses, methods, and analysis plan ahead of time and publishing it on a time-stamped website
Questionable research practices
Practices that unintentionally make the research less replicable
Random assignment
Placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in such a way that each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable
Reliability
The degree to which a measure is stable and consistent over time
Replication
Repetition of a research study to confirm or contradict the results
Standard deviation
A statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average from the mean
Theory
Model of interconnected ideas or concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events. Theories are based on empirical evidence
Self-report methods
Methods of data collection in which people are asked to provide information about themselves, such as in surveys or questionnaires.
Scientific method
A systematic and dynamic procedures of observing and measuring phenomena, used to achieve the goals of description, prediction, control, and explanation; it involved an interaction among research, theories, and hypotheses.
Scatterplot
A graphical depiction of the relationship between two variables
Sample
A subset of a population
Research
A scientific process that involves the careful collection, analysis and interpretation of data
Experimentation aversion
A tendency for people to prefer to receive an untested treatment than to participate in randomized study to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment
Experimental group
The participants in an experiment who receive the treatment
Experiment
A research method that tests casal hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables
Directionality problem
Problem encountered in correlation studies; the researchers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable
Descriptive statistics
Statistics that summarize the data collected in a study
Descriptive research
Research methods that involve observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematically
Dependent variable
The variable that is measured in a research study
Data
Measurements gathered during the research process
Culturally sensitive research
Studies that take into account the role that culture plays in determining thoughts, feelings, and actions
Correlational studies
Research method that describes and predicts how variables are naturally related in the real world without any attempt by the researchers to alter them or assign causation between them
Stimulus generalization
Learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response
Temporal discounting
The tendency to discount the subjective value of a reward when it is given after a delay
Unconditioned response
A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response, such as a reflex, without any prior learning
Vicarious learning
Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action
Sensitization
An increase in behavioral response after exposure to a stimulus
Shaping
A process of operant conditioning; it involves reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior
Social learning
Acquiring or changing a behavior after verbal instruction or exposure to another individual performing that behavior
Spontaneous recovery
When a previously extinguished conditioned response reemerges after the presentation of the conditioned stimulus
Stimulus discrimination
A differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
Partial-reinforcement extinction effect
The greater persistence of behavior under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement
Phobia
An acquired fear that is out of proportion to the real threat of an object or a situation
Positive punishment
The administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behaviors recurrence
Positive reinforcement
The administration of a stimulus to increase the probability of a behaviors recurrence
Punishment
A stimulus that follows a behavior and decreases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
Reinforcer
A stimulus that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will be repeated
Rescorla-wagner model
A cognitive model of classical conditioning; it holds that learning is determined by the extent to which an unconditioned stimulus is unexpected or surprising
Negative reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior’s recurrence
Nonassociative learning
Responding after repeated exposure to a single stimulus or event
Operant conditioning
A learning process in which the consequences of an actions determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future
Partial reinforcement
A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced intermittently
Classical conditioning (pavlovian conditioning)
A type of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces that response
Conditioned response
A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned
Conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
Continuous reinforcement
A type of learning in which behavior is reinforced each time it occurs
Behaviorism
A psychological approach that emphasizes environmental influences on observable behaviors
Associative learning
Linking two stimuli or events that occur together
Acquisition
The gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli
Equipotentiality
The principle that any conditioned stimulus paired with any unconditioned stimulus should result in learning
Extinction
A process in which the conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus
Fear conditioning
A type of classical conditioning that runs neutral stimulus into threatening stimuli
Habituation
A decrease in behavioral response after repeated exposure to a stimulus
Instructed learning
Learning associations and behaviors through verbal communication
Law of effect
Thorndike’s general theory of learning: any behavior that leads to a “satisfying state of affairs” is likely to occur again, and any behavior that leads to an “annoying state of affairs” is less likely to occur again. Or, the likelihood of the occurrence of a behavior is influenced by its consequences.
Learning
A relatively enduring change in behavior resulting from experience
Modeling
The limitation of observed behavior
Negative punishment
The removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior’s recurrence
Axon
A long, narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is conducted from the cell body to the terminal buttons
Terminal buttons
At the ends of axons, small nodules that release chemical signals from the neuron into the synapse
Synapse
The gap between the terminal buttons of a “sending” neuron and the dendrite of a “receiving” neuron, where chemical communication occurs between the neurons
Action potential
The electrical signal that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons
Resting membrane potential
The electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active.
Relative refractory period
The brief period of time following action potential when a neuron’s membrane potential is more negative, or hyperpolarized, making it harder to fire again
All-or-none principle
The principle that when a neuron fires, it fires with the same potency each time; a neuron either fires or not, although the frequency of firing can vary
Nodes of Ranvier
Small gaps of exposed axon between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials take place.
Neurotransmitters
Chemical substances that transmit signals from one neuron to another
Receptors
In neurons, specialized protein molecules on the postsynaptic membrane; neurotransmitters bind to these molecules after passing across the synapse.
Myelin sheath
A fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates some axons to allow for faster movement of electrical impulses along the axon.
Absolute refractory period
The brief period of time following an action potential when the ion channel is unable to respond again.
Reuptake
The process whereby a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity
Broca’s area
A small portion of the left frontal region of the brain, crucial for the production of language.
EEG
A technique for measuring electrical activity in the brain.
PET
A method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream.
MRI
A method of brain imaging that uses a powerful magnetic field to produce high-quality images of the brain.
fMRI
An imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain by measuring changes in the blood’s oxygen levels.
TMS
The use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions.
Prefrontal cortex
The frontmost portion of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans; important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality.
Split brain
A condition that occurs when the corpus callosum is surgically cut and the two hemispheres of the brain do not receive information directly from each other.
Insula
The part of the cerebral cortex lying inside the lateral fissure; important for taste, pain, perception of bodily states, and empathy.
Thalamus
The gateway to the brain; it receives almost all incoming sensory information before that information reaches the cortex.
Hypothalamus
A brain structure that is involved in the regulation of bodily functions, including body temperature, body rhythms, blood pressure, and blood glucose levels; it also influences our basic motivated behaviors
Hippocampus
A brain structure that is associated with the formation of memories
Amygdala
A brain structure that serves a vital role in learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information
Basal ganglia
A system of subcortical structures that are important for the planning and production of movement
Frontal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex—at the front of the brain—important for movement and higher-level psychological processes associated with the prefrontal cortex.
Temporal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex—below the parietal lobes and in front of the occipital lobes—important for processing auditory information, for memory, and for object and face perception
Parietal lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex—in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes—important for the sense of touch and for attention to the environment.
Brain stem
An extension of the spinal cord; it houses structures that control functions associated with survival, such as heart rate, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm
Occipital lobes
Regions of the cerebral cortex—at the back of the brain—important for vision.
Corpus callosum
A massive bridge of millions of axons that connects the hemispheres of the brain and allows information to flow between them
Cerebral cortex
The outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain; the site of all thoughts, perceptions, and complex behaviors
Signal detection theory (SDT)
A theory of perception based on the idea that the detection of a stimulus requires a judgment – it is not an all-or-nothing process
Sound wave
A pattern of changes in air pressure during a period of time; it produces the perception of sound
Taste buds
Sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste
Temporal coding
A mechanism for encoding low-frequency auditory stimuli in which the firing rates of cochlear hair cells match the frequency of the sound wave
Top-down processing
The interpretation of sensory information based on knowledge, expectations, and past experiences
Transduction
The process by which sensory stimuli are converted to a neural signals the brain can interpret
Vestibular sense
Perception of balance determined by receptors in the inner ear
Place coding
A mechanism for encoding the frequency of auditory stimuli in which the frequency of the sound wave is encoded by the location of the hair cells along the basilar membrane
Retina
The thin inner surface of the back of the eyeball, which contains the sensory receptors that transduce light into neural signals
Rods
Retinal cells that respond to low levels of light and result in black-and-white perception
Sensation
The detection of physical stimuli and the transmission of this information to the brain
Sensory adaptation
A decrease in sensitivity to a constant level of stimuli
Perception
The processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals in the brain
Olfactory epithelium
A thin layer of tissue within the nasal cavity that contains the receptors for smell
Olfactory bulb
The brain center for smell, located below the frontal lobes
olfaction
The sense of smell
Object constancy
Correctly perceiving objects as constant in their shape, size, color, and lightness, despite raw sensory data that could mislead perception
Motion parallax
A monocular depth cue observed when moving relative to objects, in which the objects that are closer appear to move faster than the objects that are farther away
Monocular depth cues
Cues of depth perception that are available to each eye alone
Haptic sense
The sense of touch
Gustation
The sense of taste
Fovea
The center of the retina, where cones are densely packed
Difference threshold
The minimum amount of change required to detect a difference between two stimuli
Convergence
A cue of binocular depth perception; when a person views a nearby object, the eye muscles turn the eyes inward
Cones
Retinal cells that respond to higher levels of light and result in color perception
Bottom-up processing
Perception based on the physical features of the stimulus
Binocular disparity
A depth cue; because of the distance between the two eyes; each eye receives a slightly different retinal image
Binocular depth cues
Cues of depth perception that arise from the fact that people have two eyes
Audition
Hearing; the sense of sound perception
Absolute threshold
The minimum intensity of stimulation necessary to detect a sensation half the time