PY2505.8 ~ {Intro to Parenting}
why study parenting
how you were parented determines a large part of who you become and how you behave in adulthood + its an extremely important [life-changing] event + we need to know how to do it better
Nelson et al., (2014)
parents encounter 'relatively greater negative emotions + magnified financial prob + more sleep disturbance + troubled marriages + greater meaning in life + satisfaction of basic need + greater positive emotions + enhanced social roles + they are met with happiness and joy
(Morgan et al., 2011)
prob with parent-child relationships [that fall short of abuse + neglect] play a sig part in determining adult mental health
parenting (Hoghughi, 2004, p5)
purposive activities aimed at ensuring the survival + development
how is human parenting unique
often lifelong interaction + survival species [we don't typically have many offspring so we need lifelong for sprecies to still be there] + growth of infants into effective citizens
challenges to parenting
relatively expensive + ill health + separation & blending of fam + reduced social support / extended fam + work/home conflicting demands + strong external influences + few standard moles of parenting
the transition to parenthood (Simpson & Rholes, 2002)
fulfillment & self actualisation + love & pride + sleep deprivation + physical adjustment for mother + stress & emotional arousal & guilt + enduring responsibility + decrease in quality of relationship with partner + poverty/high economic cost
mother and fathers: transitiom to parenthood (Epifano et al., 2015)
is a psych + development complex process + characterized by sig personal & fam changes requiring personal adjustment
main criticisms of research
most parenting research to date has focused on mothers + 'nuclear' fams [usually consisting of 2 parents + children living together in a single household]
Yogman & Garfield, 2016, for the American Academy of Pediatrics: Who is the father
males identified as most involved in caregiving + committed to the wellbeing of the child regardless of living situation, marital status or bio relation
Yogman & Garfield, 2016, for the American Academy of Pediatrics: Who is the father [who does it include]
resident vs non-resient + blended families + gay families
Yogman & Garfield, 2016, for the American Academy of Pediatrics: results
stay at home fathers = 17% in US in 2016 + 1 in 6 fathers are non-residential + only 1-2% do not participate with children + time spent on childcare has increased from 2.5 [in 1965] to 7 hrs per week (2022)
Yogman & Garfield, 2016, for the American Academy of Pediatrics: father - prenatal & newborn
majority are present at birth + prenantal involvement & residence best predictor of continued involvement at 5 years + fathers' MH in preg related to child emotional prob at 3 years + more likely to play with infant than mothers
Yogman & Garfield, 2016, for the American Academy of Pediatrics: father - early adulthood
involvement associated with positive developmental + psych outcomes
Yogman & Garfield, 2016, for the American Academy of Pediatrics: father - adolescenece
involvement associated with decrease in likelihood of adolescent risky behaviours, depression & behaviour prob & enhanced cog development
key thing to note about studies
they were cross-sectional [so only carried out at one time-so valid for that time but are they relevant now?] so we use the word 'associated with' *even longitudinal studies struggle to find causes just correlations [so not linear]
non-standard family formants & same gender parenting Lamb, 2012
children's adjustment is affected by the quality of their experiences + wellbeing of those around them, not by the makeup and structure of their families
non-standard family formants & same gender parenting Lamb, 2012 - why is it important
prejudice against individuals + fams on basis of gender, marital status or sexual orientation - these factors do not predict whether or not a child receives 'good enough parenting'
core activities for 'good enough parenting' (Winnicot, 1958)
care, control development
prevention of adversity & harm + promotion of positives & asistance /aiding development
care
physical care [feeding bathing etc] + emotional care [facial expression or contact] + social care [exposing them to other people] + spiritual care [in some cultures]
control
setting & enforcing boundaries for behavioural control [parental dispositions & cultural expectations] + parents own history of being parented [diff styles goals beliefs + efficacy] + cultural & ethical considerations of acceptable punishments / consequences
development
fulfilment of a child's potential in all areas of functioning + provision of new opportunities & encouragement [sports, arts, enviro, sciences, culture] + development of [culturally appropriate values]
what do you need to be a 'good enough parent'
economic resources + motivation [bio, cultural, social, personal] + knowledge & understanding [ recognition & interpretation of child's state + appropriate reaction/responses + parents' ability dependent on own socialisation]
when parenting fails (Lupein 2009)
bio impact- severe deprivation, neglect & trauma in childhood has been associated with decreased glucocorticpid levels
when parenting fails
80 children per year are killed by their parents in the Uk alone [Home Office] + state takes parallel repsonsibility in most western countries; parents have their children 'in trust' and do not own them + UN charter of children's rights
coparenting according to Lamb study
stresses that conflict between parents is one of the most significant factors contributing to child stress + adjustment problems
what determines child's adjustment according to Lamb
not fam structure [nuclear vs single vs blended] but rather emotional climate of fam - supportive caring atable fam enviros promote positive child development
tasks associated with parenting
feeding + nurtuting + emotional support + bathing + discipline + socialising + comforting + protecting + behavioural control + cleaning + education + healthcare
what child factors might make parenting more challenging
disrespect + personality + illness + temperament + disobedience + mental issues + neurodivergent condition + lack of communication + sleep deprivation
what parent factors make parenting more challenging
finance + illness + mental health + disabilties + upbringing + alcholism + drug use + other children + lack of preparato + ses status + narcissism + postnatal depresson + job + divorce + loss of someone
what external factors make parenting more challenging
war + pandemic + enviro + culture + economy + housing + poverty + social media + work + domestic violence + pollution + security + overcrowding + natural disasters + support from others
psychological adjustment
refers to an individual's ability to cope with + adapt to the various challenges, changes + stressors that they encounter in their life [Lamb, 2012]
what is children's adjustment affected by
the qualty of their exoeriences + the well-being of those around them, not by the makeup + structure of their fam [Lamb, 2012]
social & ecoogical systems
Urie Bronfenbrenner - model that explains how various layers of enviro factors influences a child's development [highlights interconnectedness of multiple systems that a child might interact with and how these shape behaviour, growth or overall development]
Jay Belsky: Process (ecological) model
closesly related to the ecological systems theory + focuses on dynamic interaction between a child's development + enviro specifically how parenting practices [& contextual factors] influence child outcomes
Bronfenbrenner's 5 distinct but related enviro settings that influence the child directly & indirectly
microsystem [fam, peers, school, neighbourhood] + mesosystem [relationships between micro and others] + exosystem [parental work roles, govt agencies, community] + macrosystem [cultural beliefs and values] + chronosystem [entire network across lifetime & specific time in history]
Belsky's 3 broad categories
personal psych resources of the parent
chracteristics of the child
contextual sources of stress & support
contextual sources of stress and support
ecological perspective
parental relationship
wider social support [match between support required & support recieved]
work [unemployment & poverty vs work/life balance
Key Components of Belsky's Process Model (1984):d
developmental history of parent, personality of parent, marital relations, work [rmployemnt + economic factors], social network & support, child characteristics, child development