AS PSYCH | mock exam revision
What structure do you use to answer: "Describe two assumptions of the approach in explaining human behaviour"
SEE (State - Evidence - Explain)
how do we STATE an assumption?
One assumption of the _ approach is that _ impacts human behaviour.
What EVIDENCE is there for the localisation of brain function impacting human behaviour?
The brain is made up of 2 hemispheres which are divided into 4 lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital), each of which is linked with specific behaviours.
How do we EXPLAIN the localisation of brain function impacting human behaviour?
For example, if the hippocampus (located in the temporal lobe), is damaged, research has demonstrated that long term memory loss can occur. This demonstrates the role of localisation of brain function in impacting human behaviour.
What EVIDENCE is there for evolutionary influences impacting human behaviour?
The assumption states that behaviours which are adaptive are more likely to be inherited by offspring through genetic transmission, as these behaviours increased the ancestors' chances of survival.
How can we EXPLAIN evolutionary influences impacting human behaviour?
For example, Seligman argues that certain phobias (the irrational fear of something) such as fears of snakes, heights and strangers exist because they were adaptive to our species. This explains how evolutionary influences impact human behaviour.
Which approach has the localisation of brain function as an assumption?
Biological
Which approach has evolutionary influences as an assumption?
Biological
Which approach has internal mental processes as an assumption?
Cognitive
Which approach has schemas as an assumption?
Cognitive
What EVIDENCE is there that internal mental proceses exist/influence behaviour?
The approach assumes that there are 4 internal mental processes of our mind (attention, perception, memory and language) that work together to help us make sense of the world around us and operate effectively within it.
How can we EXPLAIN that internal mental proceses exist/influence behaviour?
For example, when we see a dog, we must first pay attention to it, then perceive its features (e.g. fur, tail), search through our memory to see if we recognise it before finally using language to recall the word 'dog'. Therefore, internal mental processes are demonstrated to influence human behaviour.
What EVIDENCE is there that schemas exist/impact human behaviour?
A schema can be had for a vast number of people, places and things: it is a pre-existing 'collection of ideas' that helps individuals make sense of the world, and can then become more complex through experience.
How can we EXPLAIN that schemas exist/impact human behaviour?
For example, each individual follows the same routine when making a cup of tea: filling the kettle with water, boiling the water, placing a teabag in the cup, and pouring the boiling water inside, however, this can become more complex through experience as preferences such as milk or sugar are added. This demonstrates how schemas influence behaviour.
What structure do we use to answer "Explain how relationships are formed using the _ approach"?
SELE (State - Evidence - Link - Explain)
When does a question require an introduction?
Where there is a statement. (e.g, "Special bonds with other people are important for both mental and physical health."
How do we write an effective introduction to: "Special bonds with other people are important for both mental and physical health."?
Copy the statement then use the question to explain the essay. (E.g, Special bonds with other people are important for both mental and physical health. The biological and behaviourist approaches can explain how these relationships are formed.)
How can we LINK evolutionary influences to the formation of relationships?
This links to romantic relationship formation as traits that enhance successful reproduction are naturally selected, however, males experience different selective pressures to females.
How can we EXPLAIN why evolutionary influences link to the formation of relationships?
For example, males select women who show signs of youth and fertility (e.g. smooth skin, red lips - what they see as 'physical attractiveness') in order to reproduce frequently and successfully, but females are more concerned with finding a partner who can provide the resources needed for an offspring's survival (e.g. shelter, food).
Which approach has "behaviour is learnt through different types of conditioning" as an assumption?
Behaviourist
What EVIDENCE is there for different types of conditioning impacting human behaviour?
There are two types of conditioning: Classical conditioning (learning through association), where a neutral stimulus becomes linked with an unconditioned response to create a conditioned response, and Operant conditioning (learning through consequences), where behaviours can become more or less likely to reoccur through reinforcement or punishment.
How can we LINK "behaviour is learnt through conditioning" to the formation of relationships?
This assumption links to romantic relationship formation as couples make rational exchanges or 'trades' with each other based on their needs (operant conditioning).
How can we EXPLAIN why "behaviour is learnt through conditioning" links to the formation of relationships?
For example, if both partners feel emotionally engaged and experience positive interactions (rewards) on a first date, behaviourists would suggest that they will likely desire to spend more time together as they are motivated to repeat the behaviour (positive reinforcement - rewards outweigh costs).
Describe the main components of 'Dream Analysis'
Freud famously described dreams as 'the royal road to the unconscious the mind'. He proposed that the unconscious mind expresses itself through dreams, and that the content of a person's dreams can therefore reveal what is in their unconscious. Dream Analysis is the process of extracting these meanings from the dream.
Freud believed that all dreams are the unconscious fulfilment of wishes that cannot be satisfied by the conscious mind (Ego). Dreams therefore protect the sleeper from these urges that aren't socially acceptable by allowing some expression of the unconscious mind (Id). According to Freud, the real meaning of a dream (latent content) manifests in a way that is symbolic and inoffensive. This is the manifest content, which the dreamer actually experiences. This transformation from latent to manifest content occurs through the process of Dreamwork, and it is the role of the therapist to reverse this process during Dream Analysis.
Secondary elaboration is how the unconscious mind ties different images together to form a logical story. The therapist would try to break this down and identify specific symbols or situations where displacement has occured by the unconscious mind, and reverse them into how they initially condensed. They should suggest various interpretations of these dream symbols based on the patient's feedback and knowledge of their life experiences, allowing the patient to select those that make sense.
What structure do we use when evaluating?
PEE (Point - Evidence - Explain)
What EVIDENCE is there to suggest that one weakness of Dream Analysis is effectiveness?
Salzman suggests that psychodynamic therapies are generally of little help to clients with specific anxiety disorders such as phobias or OCD, expressing concerns that psychoanalysis may actually increase OCD symptoms as it encourages overthinking in clients which are already overly concerned with their actions.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of Dream Analysis is effectiveness?
This suggests that other therapies may be more successful in treating specific anxiety disorders, and demonstrates that effectiveness is a weakness of Dream Analysis.
What EVIDENCE is there to suggest that one weakness of Dream Analysis is ethical issues?
FMS (False memory syndrome) is a condition in which a person's identity and relationships are affected by strongly believed but false memories of past traumatic experiences, which can come to light when the therapist claims to have uncovered such events during psychoanalysis. FMS supporters suggest that the client is likely to believe this information as the therapist is an authority figure.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of Dream Analysis is ethical issues?
Toon et al. suggests that therapists may take advantage of this for financial gain by deliberately creating false memories so that the therapy takes longer, resulting in increased anxiety for clients. This demonstrates how ethical issues are a weakness of Dream Analysis.
What EVIDENCE is there to suggest that one strength of Dream Analysis is effectiveness?
Solms used PET scans to highlight the regions of the brain that are active during dreaming, and results showed that the rational parts of the brain are inactive during REM sleep, whereas centres connected with memory and motivation are very active.
How can we EXPLAIN that one strength of Dream Analysis is effectiveness?
This backs the underlying theory of the therapy with research support, as it proves that Freud was correct in his assumption that dreams are the unconscious fulfilment of wishes (by the Id). This suggests that one strength of Dream Analysis may be effectiveness.
How do you conclude an evalutation essay (using Dream Analysis as an example)?
State the essay's purpose, make a judgement and include new information. (e.g, In conclusion, this essay has evaluated the effectiveness and ethical issues of Dream Analysis as a therapy. In my opinion, Dream Analysis is effective and ethical only to an extent, as it has the potential to cause further emotional harm to the client. For example, a therapist may guide the client to an emotionally distressing interpretation that, although being necessary for recovery, may cause greater distress than the client is experiencing as a result of current problems.)
Describe the main components of 'Systematic Desensitisation'.
SD was developed by Joseph Wolpe to help clients re-experience a phobic stimulus without the fear response, as if they were experiencing the situation for the first time without any prior learning or associations.
There are 3 stages to SD, the first of which is functional analysis. This involves the therapist drawing up a hierarchy of fear with the client. For example, regarding arachnophobia, the hierarchy may consist of looking at a picture of a spider, being in the same room as a spider, then touching a spider.
The second stage of SD is relaxation training. The client is trained in methods of relaxation such as deep breathing and visualisation, as well as the relaxation of their muscles.
The third stage of SD is graduated exposure. At this stage, the client is gradually brought into contact with the phobic stimulus following the hierarchy from the lowest to the highest stage. At each stage, the client uses the relaxation techniques, and only when full relaxation is achieved do they progress to the next. Graduated exposure can be introduced using methods of 'in vivo' (the client is actually exposed to the phobic stimulus) and 'in vitro' (the client imagines being exposed to the phobic stimulus).
SD tends to last 6-8 sessions (can be longer with severe phobias) and can be self-administered; this is especially effective with social phobia.
What EVIDENCE is there to suggest that one strength of SD is effectiveness?
SD has been proven successful when the phobia is learned one and relates to a specific event or object. For example, Capafons et al found that clients with a fear of flying reported lower fear levels whilst in a flight simulator following a 12-15 week treatment period, during which both 'in vivo' and 'in vitro' techniques were used.
How can we EXPLAIN that one strength of SD is effectiveness?
This demonstrates how SD can be better than other therapies when treating specific phobias, hence shows how one strength of SD is effectiveness.
What EVIDENCE is there to suggest that one strength of SD is ethical issues?
SD is mainly used with phobias rather than problems like depression or schizophrenia, so patients are 'in touch' with reality and 'healthy' enough to fully understand what the therapy will require of them.
How can we EXPLAIN that one strength of SD is ethical issues?
This means that patients are able to provide informed, valid consent to the therapy, which shows how one strength of SD is its ethical issues.
What EVIDENCE is there to suggest that one weakness of SD is effectiveness?
SD may not work on certain phobias as the fear is only a symptom rather than the underlying cause of the phobia. For example, Freud reported the case of Little Hans, a boy with a fear of horses as the result of an underlying anxiety about his father.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of SD is effectiveness?
In this case, SD may have successfully dealt with the horse phobia but not Little Hans's underlying anxiety, so some psychologists would argue that the fear symptoms would resurface as another phobia due to symptom substitution. This demonstrates how one weakness of SD is effectiveness.
How do you conclude an evalutation essay (using SD as an example)?
State the essay's purpose, make a judgement and include new information. (e.g, In conclusion, this essay has evaluated the effectiveness and ethical issues of SD as a therapy. In my opinion, SD is mostly effective and ethical, as patients attend SD sessions of their own free will. These sessions are carried out on a voluntary basis and the patient has the right to withdraw at any time.)
Describe the findings and conclusions of Raine's research: "brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography".
Raine et al found reduced activity in the brains of NGRI participants. This occured in areas where low activity had been previously linked to violence (Prefrontal cortex, Amygdala (left hemisphere), Thalamus (left hemisphere), Hippocampus (left hemisphere) etc.). It is thought that reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex may explain aggressive and impulsive behaviour as this area of the brain is linked with control and the ability to modify one's behaviour.
They also found increased activity in the brains of NGRI participants in areas not previously linked to violence, including thr cerebellum, amygdala (right hemisphere), thalamus (right hemisphere), and hippocampus (right hemisphere).
The study found no difference between NGRI participants and the control group in brain areas not previously linked to violence, including the caudate, midbrain etc.
Overall, findings showed that NGRI participants had reduced activity on the left side of their brains, and greater activity on the right. This applied to areas which had been identified to link with violence in the hypothesis (amygdala, thalamus, hippocampus), however there were no differences in the brains of NGRI participants from normal people in some areas, notably those associated with mental illness but not violence.
Any observed brain differences were not related to task performance, as both groups performed similarly on the continuous performance task.
From these findings, Raine et al concluded that the study gives initial evidence that criminals pleading NGRI do have different brain functions to normal people. However, these findings cannot be taken to demonstrate that violence is caused by biology alone, as social, psychological, cultural and situational factors clearly play important roles in predisposing to violence.
Second, the data does not demonstrate that murderers pleading NGRI are not responsible for their actions. It does not demonstrate that PET scans can be used as a diagnosis technique.
Third, the findings do not establish a causal link between brain dysfunction and violence.
Finally, the findings cannot currently be generalised from NGRI murder cases to other types of violent cases, but document that murderers pleading NGRI have a significantly different glucose metabolism in certain brain regions compared to control subjects.
Describe the procedures of Bowlby's research, "Forty-four juvenile thieves, their characters and their home life".
This study was a series of case studies. It looked at the association between two groups (theives and a control group) and experiences of seperation, but despite having a control group, was not an experiment.
The focus of the study was on 44 children who attended the same guidance clinic, with stealing being one of their 'symptoms'. The sample consisted of 31 boys and 13 girls, aged between 5 and 17, and they were graded based on the seriousness of their stealing (Grade I thieves having stolen once, Grade IV thieves stealing for a long time). Mainly, the thieves were of average intelligence, but 2 were lower and a further 15 had a higher IQ range.
The children in the control group also attended the clinic for emotional problems, but did not steal. They were of similar age, sex, and IQ to the thieves. Overall, there were 88 children included in the study, and all mothers were interviewed to assess the case histories of the children.
For this study. the sample was obtained through opportunity sampling. Each child was given mental tests by a psychologist to assess their intelligence upon arrival at the clinic using the Binet Scale, and emotional attitudes were also noted. Simultaneously, the child's mother was interviewed by a social worker who recorded the child's early psychiatric history.
Both the psychologist and social worker then reported to the psychiatrist (Bowlby), who then interviewed the child and mother in a two-hour examination. School and other reports were also discussed after their conclusions.
Many of the children continued the meet with Bowlby over a period of six months or more, and the mothers talked over their problems with a social worker. These meetings enabled a detailed case history to be recorded and enabled Bowlby to diagnose the children's emotional problems.
What factors must you consider when assessing/evaluating a psychological approach?
SAND (Scientific - Applications - Nature/nurture - Deterministic)
What EVIDENCE is there that one strength of the biological approach is that is is scientific?
For example, the key methods used include brain scans which produce quantitative data (not subjective), and are highly objective and replicable (such as the PET scan used by Raine et al).
How can we EXPLAIN that one strength of the biological approach is that is is scientific?
This is a strength because theories and therapies from the approach can be tested to identify causal relationships, which improves external validity as extraneous variables are controlled. Scientific studies can also be repeated to check the reliability of findings.
What EVIDENCE is there that one strength of the biological approach is that it has positive applications?
Biological therapies have been shown to be highly effective in the treatment of mental illness. For example, DBS has been shown to be very effective in the treatment of severe depression where others therapies such as CBT have failed (Mayberg et al).
How can we EXPLAIN that one strength of the biological approach is that it has positive applications?
This is a strength because it shows the external validity of the biological approach, and demonstrates that the medical model has been beneficial to the lives of many, which shows the positive social implications of the approach.
What EVIDENCE is there that one weakness of the biological approach is that it only considers the role of nature and ignores the role of nuture?
For example, the approach sees mental illness as a result of a chemical imbalance within the body, such as depression being linked to low serotonin levels rather than stressful life events. It ignores these as a possible cause of the disorder.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of the biological approach is that it only considers the role of nature and ignores the role of nuture?
This is a weakness as it makes the approach reductionist, which in turn limits the treatments offered by the approach. For example, where depression is caused by stressful life events, counselling may be required in order to improve behaviour. The biological approach, however, would only be concerned with providing antidepressants.
What EVIDENCE is there that one weakness of the biological approach is that it is deterministic?
The approach believes that behaviour is predetermined by our genetics which cause abnormal activity in specific brain areas, such as how those surrounding the thalamus have been linked to OCD.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of the biological approach is that it is deterministic?
This is a weakness as it denies a person the free will to choose and modify their own behaviour, because the medical model focuses on treating psychological problems through drugs or surgery. This is not empowering for a patient and can make them feel that they can do nothing to improve their mental health without surgery or drugs, which can be damaging for the patient's self-esteem.
What EVIDENCE is there that one weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it is not scientific?
Bowlby used case studies to examine the effect of maternal deprivation on behaviour but these case studies were qualitative and the children's personality types were determined largely by Bowlby himself based on his own subjective judgement. Similarly, Freud used subjective, qualitative methods when studying the behaviour of patients like Little Hans.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it is not scientific?
This is a weakness because such subjective evidence means that we are unable to identify clear IVs or DVs and therefore testable hypotheses are not produced to be tested under controlled lab conditions, unlike in other approaches. As a result, the approach itself lacks trustworthy evidence which lowers its validity.
What EVIDENCE is there that one strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it has positive applications?
For example, dream analysis and psychotherapy can be used to help people and to treat mental disorders as Freud demonstrated through his study of Little Hans, whose phobia disappeared once he had resolved his Oedipus complex.
How can we EXPLAIN that one strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it has positive applications?
This is a strength because it demonstrates the effective nature of therapies resulting from Psychodynamic theories, as it has been helpful to consider the influence of childhood experiences on behaviour in some cases (demonstrating external validity).
What EVIDENCE is there that one strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it considers both nature and nurture?
For example, in the Tripartite personality theory, Freud said that our adult personality is the product of conflict between the unconscious Id, which we possess from birth (nature), and the Superego which we develop due to the experiences with our parents in our childhood (nurture).
How can we EXPLAIN that one strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it considers both nature and nurture?
This is a strength because it makes the approach interactionist in that it contains multiple factors in our behaviour and development, reflecting the complex nature of human behaviour and avoiding the reductionism seen in other approaches.
What EVIDENCE is there that one weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it is deterministic?
The approach views adult behaviour, mental illness and personality as a result of childhood experiences and fixations stored in the unconscious mind, such as how an 'anal retentive' person will typically exhibit neat and tidy characteristics.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of the psychodynamic approach is that it is deterministic?
This is a weakness because the approach ignores the idea of free will. It suggests instead that we cannot choose our behaviour, and this deterministic view is problematic as it removes any personal or legal responsibility for our behaviour as a person can simply argue that they are motivated by past experiences/the mistakes of parents or forces our of their control.
What structure do we use when describing how the assumptions of an approach link to a therapy?
SEAL (State - Evidence - Aim - Link)
what is the AIM of CBT (when fixing perception)?
The therapist using CBT will aim to identify and change the client's unwanted or maladaptive perceptions and replace them with positive and constructive thinking that will lead to healthy behaviour. This can be achieved through cognitive restructuring (including empirical disputing) where the therapist questions the evidence behind the client's perceptions.
How can we LINK internal mental processes to CBT?
The assumptions of the cogitive approach link to CBT as both focus on the importance of mental processes such as perception on behaviour, and abnormal behaviour can therefore be improved by challenging distorted perceptions.
What is the AIM of CBT (when breaking down the negative schemas of depressed people - surrounding themselves, the world around them, and their futures - the cognitive triad)?
CBT aims to help the client change these negative schemas, resulting in a change in how they behave. This is through cognitive restructuring, which involves behavioural experiments the client wouldn't usually perform (as they challenge the schema).
How can we LINK schemas to CBT?
The assumption of schemas links to CBT as both believe that a person's behaviour is caused by the person's previous experiences and thoughts which are stored in schemas, as well as that behaviour can be altered by challenging schemas.
What EVIDENCE is there to show that one weakness of Bowlby's research 'forty-four juvenile thieves' is ethical issues?
Confidentiality is an issue in the study as many of the children were reported by name in the article. For example, we know that Betty L. was placed in a foster home at age seven months when her parents split up, then after moving around multiple foster homes spent a year in convrnt school before she returned home at the age of five.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of Bowlby's research 'forty-four juvenile thieves' is ethical issues?
This level of specific detail means that participants are likely to be personally identifiable from the research which may impact their future lives negatively. This demonstrates how ethical issues are a weakness of Bowlby's research.
What EVIDENCE is there to show that one strength of Bowlby's research 'forty-four juvenile thieves' is ethical issues?
Bowlby did not did not experimentally manipulate maternal deprivation, as it would be unethical to separate children from their mothers to observe the effects on behaviour because this would lead to psychological harm.
How can we EXPLAIN that one strength of Bowlby's research 'forty-four juvenile thieves' is ethical issues?
Therefore, the case study method offered a more ethical way of conducting this research, so one strength of Bowlby's research is ethical issues.
What EVIDENCE is there to show that one weakness of Bowlby's research 'forty-four juvenile thieves' is social implications?
One of the key implications of Bowlby's research is that women may have felt less able to return to work after having children in the 20th century as Bowlby's study shows the importance of the mother in a child's healthy moral development, and this would have further implications for the family and their economic position, especially if the mother is on a higher income.
How can we EXPLAIN that one weakness of Bowlby's research 'forty-four juvenile thieves' is social implications?
This would also have broader implications for the UK economy as fewer women in the workforce could decrease productivity and the overall GDP, demonstrating how Bowlby's research has negative social implications.
"A psychology student suggests to his teacher that one of the problems with the behaviourist approach is that it is too simplistic. Explain why this might be considered a strength or weakness of the behaviourist approach." How would we approach answering this question?
Reference the statement: A psychology student suggests to his teacher that one of the problems with the behaviourist approach is that it is too simplistic.
Use PEE: This can be considered a weakness because the behaviourist approach ignores the role of nature in behaviour...
Reference the statement: ....therefore, one of the problems of the behaviourist approach is that it is too simplistic.
What EVIDENCE is there to suggest that one weakness of the behaviourist approach is that it ignores the role of nature in behaviour?
The approach assumes that all behaviour is influenced the the environment and experiences (nurture) and not genetic causes (nature), as according to Skinner, behaviours are learnt through operant conditioning, so behaviour which leads to positive outcomes is more likely to be repeated. There is no innate behaviour.
How can we EXPLAIN why one weakness of the behaviourist approach is that it ignores the role of nature in behaviour?
This is a weakness of the approach because it leads to a reductionist view of behaviour, so treatments offered to patients are limited to those focusing on non-physical causes for behaviour, such as past experiences. Biological factors that may play a vital role in mental illness, such as neurotransmitter levels, are ignored,
What is the AIM of SD? (relating to conditioning types)
SD was developed by Joseph Wolpe with the aim of treating phobias through counter-conditioning to replace the fear response to a stimulus with a relaxation response, which is done through the use of a fear hierarchy drawn up as part of functional analysis.
How does the assumption that behaviour is learnt through conditioning LINK to SD?
The assumption that behaviour is learnt through conditioning links with SD which is based on the idea that behaviour is learnt through classical conditioning (association) and abnormal or unwanted behaviour can therefore be unlearnt.
Referencing the strengths and weaknesses of the biological approach, how can a final PEE paragraph be disguised as a conclusion?
In conclusion, I believe that the weaknesses of the biological approach outweigh the strengths because one weakness of the approach is that it is deterministic. (etc)
Referencing the strengths and weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach, how can a final PEE paragraph be disguised as a conclusion?
In conclusion, I believe that the weaknesses of the psychodynamic approach outweigh the strengths because one weakness of the approach is that it is deterministic. (etc)