CHAPTER 4: ATTENTION AND CONSCIOUSNESS
is the means by which we ACTIVIELY SELECT and PROCESS a LIMITED amount of INFORMATION from all of the information CAPTUTED by our SENSES, our STORED memories, and our other COGNITIVE processes
Attention
ATTENTION includes:
both conscious and unconscious processes.
You always have A WEALTH OF INFORMATION available to you that you are not aware of until:
you retrieve it from your memory or shift your attention.
SENSORY INFORMATION is always available to you, but you do not:
attend to it.
ATTENTION allows us to use limited mental resources by:
focusing on stimuli that interest us.
ATTENTION increases the likelihood that we can respond SPEEDILY AND ACCURATELY to:
interesting stimuli.
ATTENTION and CONSCIOUSNESS form:
Two partially overlapping sets
The four main functions of attention are:
Signal detection and vigilance
Search
Selective attention
Divided attention
CONSCIOUS ATTENTION plays a causal role in cognition, and serves THREE PURPOSES. What ate those purposes?
It helps monitor our interactions with the environment. We maintain our awareness of how well we are adapting to a situation.
it assists us in linking our past (memories) and our present (sensations) to give us a sense of continuity of experience. Such continuity may even serve as the basis for personal identity.
it helps us control and plan for our future actions based on the information from monitoring and from the links between past memories and present sensations
One of the four functions of attention which we try to DETECT the APPEARANCE of a particular STIMULUS.
Signal detection and vigilance
on a dark street, we may try to DETECT UNWELCOME sights or sounds. This is an example of:
Signal detection and vigilance
One of the functions of attention in which. We engage in an ACTIVE SEARCH for particular stimuli.
Search
If we DETECT smoke (as a result of our vigilance), we may engage in an ACTIVE SEARCH for the SOURCE of the smoke. This is an example:
Search
We may SEARCH for MISSING keys, sunglasses, and other items.
Search
One of the functions of attention in which we choose to ATTEND to some STIMULI and IGNORE others. Focusing our attention helps us execute other cognitive processes, such as verbal comprehension or problem solving.
Selective attention
We may PAY ATTENTON to reading a textbook or to listening to a lecture while IGNORING such stimuli as a nearby radio or latecomers to the lecture. This is an example:
Selective attention
One of the functions of attention which we engage in MORE THAN ONE task at a time, and we shift our attentional resources to allocate them as needed.
Divided attention
Experienced drivers easily can TALK while DRIVING under most circumstances, but if another vehicle is swerving toward their cars, they quickly switch all their attention toward driving (and away from talking).
Divided attention
In the SHORT TERM, lifeguards on duty must quickly detect a crucial stimulus among the mass of stimuli on the beach. This is called
Signal detection
In the LONG TERM, lifeguards have to maintain their attention to ensure nothing is amiss during their entire working period. This is known as
Vigilance
Signal-detection theory (SDT) is a framework to explain how people:
Pick out the important stimuli embedded in a wealth of irrelevant, distracting stimuli
Signal Detection Theory SDT often is used to MEASURE
Sensitivity to a target’s presence
In HITS (also called “TRUE POSITIVES”), the lifeguard correctly identifies
The presence of a target (i.e., somebody drowning)
In FALSE ALARMS (also called “FALSE POSITIVES ”), the lifeguard incorrectly identifies
The presence of a target that is actually absent (i.e., the lifeguard thinks somebody is drowning who actually isn’t)
In MISSES (also called “FALSE NEGATIVES”), the lifeguard fails to observe
The presence of a target (i.e., the lifeguard does not see the drowning person)
In CORRECT REJECTIONS (also called “TRUE NEGATIVES”), the lifeguard correctly identifies
The absence of a target (i.e., nobody is drowning, and he or she knows that nobody is in trouble)
In CORRECT REJECTIONS (also called “TRUE NEGATIVES”), the lifeguard correctly identifies
The absence of a target (i.e., nobody is drowning, and he or she knows that nobody is in trouble)
The number of HITS is influenced by
Where you place your criteria for considering something a hit
How willing are you to make FALSE ALARMS? In the case of the lifeguard, the consequences of a miss are so grave that
The lifeguard lowers the criteria for considering something as a hit
When the screener correctly DETECTS A SIGNAL and RECOGNIZES a box CUTTER in the LUGGAGE, it is called a
Hit
When the screener DOES NOT DETECT A SIGNAL and FAILS to SEE the box CUTTER in the luggage, it is called a
Miss
When the screener DETECTS A SIGNAL and MISTAKENLY thinks there is a box CUTTER in the luggage when there is NONE, it is called a
False alarm
When the screener DOES NOT DETECT A SIGNAL and CORRECTLY recognizes that there is no box cutter in the luggage, it is called a
Correct rejection
VIGILANCE refers to a person’s ability to ATTEND TO A FIELD OF STIMULATION over a prolonged period, seeking to detect the appearance of a particular target stimulus of interest. Which of the following best describes vigilance?
A person's ability to maintain attention over a long time to detect rare stimuli
In a high-stakes situation, military officers watching for a sneak attack are engaged in what type of task?
Vigilance task
Which structures in the brain are involved in VIGILANCE?
Amygdala and thalamus
What type of search involves looking for just ONE feature, like color or shape?
Feature search
Which type of search is typically MORE difficult, requiring the combination of TWO OR MORE features?
Conjunction search
During a FEATURE search, how are the features analyzed?
In parallel, all at once
During a CONJUNCTION search, how are the feature analyzed?
Sequentially, one object at a time
It occurs at PREATTENTIVE stage AND NO display are effect
Feature search
It requires ATTENTIONAL resources and display size effect PRESENT
Conjunction search
It explains why it is relatively EASY to conduct FEATURE searches
and relatively DIFFICULT to conduct CONJUNCTION searches.
Feature-Integration Theory
What is the FIRST stage of object perception in the FEATURE-INTEGRATION theory?
Perceiving features of objects automatically
What does the SECOND stage of object perception involve in FEATURE-INTEGRATION theory?
Connecting two or more features
According to SIMILARITY theory, what affects the DIFFICULTY of finding a target?
How similar the target and distracters are
Why is it easier to read lowercase letters than capital letters, according to SIMILARITY theory?
Lowercase letters have more distinguishing features
What brain region showed LESS ACTIVATION in OLDER ADULTS during the conjunction search?
Right occipital cortex
What phenomenon does Colin Cherry refer to when TRACKING one conversation while DISTRACTED by others?
Cocktail party problem
In _________, you listen to TWO DIFFERENT messages.
Shadowing
According to the EARLY FILTER MODEL, when does the FILTERING of information OCCUR?
Right after we notice it at the sensory level
What is a characteristic that helps DISTINGUISH the ONEmessage that moves FORWARD for further processing in the early filter model?
Loudness, pitch, or accent
According to Broadbent's theory, what happens to the stimuli that are filtered OUT at the sensory level?
They may never reach the level of perception
Listening to your friend while also overhearing another group's conversation at a party. This is an example:
Cocktail party problem
In Cherry's SHAWDOWING task, what were participants required to do?
Repeat back only one of the messages as soon as possible
What did Moray's findings suggest about the SELECTIVE FILTER MODEL?
Some personally important messages can break through the filter
You might hear your name mentioned in a loud crowd, even if you're not paying attention.
Selective filter model
According to Moray, what type of messages are more likely to BYPASS the filter in Selective filter model?
Messages that are personally important
According to the EARLY FILTER MODEL, at what LEVEL do we FILTER information?
Sensory level
Hearing a loud noise that immediately grabs your attention, while other sounds fade away. This is an example of:
Early filter model
What did Anne Treisman’s experiments reveal about UNATTENDED messages?
Some unattended messages can be processed and recognized.
According to Treisman’s Attenuation Model, what does the ATTENUATOR do to unattended stimuli?
It weakens the strength of unattended stimuli rather than blocking them out.
What happens to messages from the UNATTENDED EAR that contain IMPORTANT information, like your name?
They are still picked up, even though the signal is weakened.
According to the LATE-FILTER MODEL when are STIMULI filtered OUT?
After they have been analyzed for both their physical properties and their meaning.
FILTERS information immediately after SENSORY processing. Only ONE message is FULLY processed based on physical characteristics (e.g., loudness, pitch).
Example: At a party, you only notice the loud voice nearby and don’t process other quieter conversations.
Early filter model
Filters information LATER in the process, AFTER both PHYSICAL and MEANING analysis. Even UNATTENDED information is partially PROCESSED.
Example: At a party, you ignore most conversations, but you still recognize your name in a distant conversation.
Late-filter model
WEAKENS (ATTENUATES) UNATTENDED messages rather than blocking them. IMPORTANT information can still PASS through if RELEVANT.
Example: At a noisy café, you focus on your friend’s voice but still hear “fire alarm” from another table because it’s important.
Attenuation model
Filters OUT most INFORMATION, but HIGH-IMPORTANCE messages (like your NAME) can BREAK through.
Example: You are at the party, and although you ignore most of the noise around you, you immediately notice when someone shouts "Fire"
Selective filter model
According to Neisser’s synthesis, what kind of processes are PREATTENTIVE PROCESSES?
Automatic processes that are rapid and occur in parallel.
Noticing the color of an object in your peripheral vision without actively focusing on it. This is an example of
Preattentive processes
ATTENTIVE, CONTROLLED PROCESSES are characterized by which of the following?)
They occur serially and consume time and attentional resources.
Reading each word of a sentence carefully to understand its meaning. This is an example of:
Attentive, controlled processes
Where is the EARLIEST RESPONSE to an auditory target stimulus observed?
In the Heschl’s gyri of the auditory cortex.
In Neisser and Becklen's experiment, what did PARTICIPANTS struggle with when trying to do BOTH TASKS at once?
They had difficulty monitoring both activities simultaneously.
According to Spelke, Hirst, and Neisser (1976), what happens to PERFORMANCE on dual tasks with enough practice?
Performance improves and reaches the same levels as performing each task alone.
What did participants eventually NOTICE about the dictated words after repeated practice?
That the words were related in some way (e.g., rhymed or formed a sentence).
What does Spelke suggest about controlled tasks that are AUTOMATIZED through practice?
Example: Driving a car on a familiar route while listening to music, where driving feels easier but still requires attention.
They consume fewer attentional resources but remain intentional and conscious.
What did studies suggest about the safety of having a PASSENGER in the car compared to using a cell phone?
Driving with a passenger makes driving safer.
According to research, how does talking on a cell phone while driving affect REACTION TIME?
Increases reaction time and likelihood of missing signals.
What type of ANXIETY places constraints on attention according to Eysenck & Byrne (1992)?
State-based anxiety.
Trait-based anxiety.
How does your overall state of AROUSAL affect attention?
Being excited sometimes enhances attention.
Feeling excited before a sports event can improve focus. This is an example:
Arousal
What influence does TASK DIFFICULTY have on attention?
Difficult tasks require more attentional resources.
What are the THREE SUBFUNCTIONS of ATTENTION identified by Posner and Rothbart?
Alerting, orienting, and executive attention.
What is ALERTING defined as?
Being prepared to attend to some incoming event and maintaining this attention.
Which brain AREAS are involved in ALERTING?
Right frontal and parietal cortices, and the locus coeruleus.
What neurotransmitter is involved in the MAINTENANCE of ALERTNESS?
Norepinephrine
What is ORIENTING defined as?
The selection of stimuli to attend to.
Which neurotransmitter is most involved in EXECUTIVE ATTENTION?
Dopamine
What is executive attention RESPONSIBLE for?
Monitoring and resolving conflicts among thoughts, feelings, and responses.
Which neurotransmitter MODULATES the ORIENTING function particularly it helps you FOCUS on the MOST IMPORTANT DETAILS in a story.
Acetylcholine
What is a primary DIFFICULTY faced by people with ADHD?
Example: Someone with ADHD might struggle to stay focused while reading a book.
Difficulties in focusing their attention in adaptive ways.
What are the three primary SYMPTOMS of ADHD?
Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness
Which type of ADHD focuses on DIFFICULTIES with ATTENTION?
Inattentive
What is one SYMPTOMS of the INATTENTIVE type of ADHD?
Easily distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds.
At what AGE does ADHD typically first display itself?
During preschool or early school years.
What is CHANGE BLINDNESS?
An inability to detect changes in objects or scenes that are being viewed.
A person fails to notice when a stop sign changes from red to green. This is an example of:
Change blindness
What is INATTENTIONAL BLINDNESS?
A phenomenon in which people are not able to see things that are actually there.
A driver fails to see a pedestrian crossing the street while looking at their phone. This is an example:
Inattentional blindness
What are AUTOMATIC PROCESSES?
Processes that involve no conscious control.
Writing your name without thinking about it. This is an example:
Automatic processes
How are CONTROLLED processes performed?
They are performed serially, one step at a time.
What is a characteristic of AUTOMATIC processes?
They demand little or no effort.
What distinguishes CONTROLLED processes from automatic processes?
Controlled processes require conscious awareness.
What is the process of BECOMING AUTOMATIC through PRACTICE called?
Example: Learning to drive a car until it becomes second nature.
Automatization (or proceduralization)
What happens to tasks that start as CONTROLLED processes when MASTERED?
They eventually become automatic.
How do processes become AUTOMATIZED according to the widely accepted view?
Steps become more efficient and are integrated into a single operation
What is the STROOP EFFECT?
A psychological difficulty in selectively attending to the color of the ink while ignoring the word.
Finding it hard to say the color of the ink when the word "red" is printed in blue ink. This is an example of:
Stroop effect
What happens in the Stroop test when the COLOR of the ink and the WORD do NOT MATCH?
It creates interference that makes naming the ink color more difficult.
How does automatization of READING affect individuals with DYSLEXIA?
It impairs their ability to complete tasks that are normally automated.
A person with ________ STRUGGLES to READ simple words that most can read automatically.
Dyslexia
Is a PROBLEM in identifying SPEECH SOUNDS and learning how they RELATE WORDS
Dyslexia
What is the DIFFERENCE between a mistake and a slip?
A mistake is an error in choosing an objective or in specifying a means of achieving it.
Deciding not to study for a test,while forgetting your book is a slip.What is the mistake and slip?
Mistake: Deciding not to study for a test is a mistake
Slip: while forgetting your book
What typically leads to SLIPS occurring?
Deviating from a routine or being interrupted.
You forget to send an email because you were distracted while working on another task. This is an example of:
Slips
What is a FORCING function?
A physical constraint that makes it difficult to carry out an automatic behavior.
How can we MINIMIZE the negative consequences of slips?
Example: Placing a reminder on your phone helps you remember to pick up groceries on the way home.
By obtaining useful feedback from the environment.
In the context of priming, what happens during NEGATIVE PRIMING?
Example: Solving addition problems may make it harder to solve multiplication problems afterward.
It impedes later recognition of a related concept.
What phenomenon do psychologists use to study things OUTSIDE conscious awareness?
Priming
What phenomenon describes the INABILITY to RETRIEVE a WORD from memory?
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
What brain regions are involved in the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
Anterior cingulate-prefrontal cortices
What phenomenon allows BLIND individuals to respond to VISUAL stimuli WITHOUT conscious awareness?
Blindsight
What did the study involving visual stimuli PAIRED with electric shocks demonstrate?
Example: A patient felt afraid of a visual cue but couldn't explain why they felt that way.
Fear responses can occur without conscious awareness of the stimulus.
What part of the brain is typically DAMAGED in individuals with blindsight?
Visual cortex
DAMAGE to the VISUAL CORTEX PREVENTS conscious vision but ALLOWS for some visual processing.
True