Intro to Psych
From the lateral/ medial view - where is the inferior located
Foot
A valley in the cortical surface is called
Sulcus
A ridge like elevation on the cortical surface is called
Gyrus
Where is the dorsal located on the cerebral cortex
Top
Where is the ventral located on the cerebral cortex
Belly side
From the lateral/ medial view - where is the superior located
Towards top
From the dorsal/ ventral view - where is the medial located
Towards the middle
From the dorsal/ ventral view - where is the lateral located
Towards side
From the dorsal/ ventral view - where is the anterior located
Towards front
From the dorsal/ ventral view - where is the proterior located
Towards back
What part of the brain is responsible for motor control: decision making
frontal cortex/ frontal lobe/ cerebrum
What part of the brain is responsible for perception to action, attention and spatial understanding
Parietal lobe
What part of the brain is responsible for visual perception
Occipital lobe
What part of the brain is responsible for automatic actions (e.g. walking), learning motor skills and correcting actions
Cerebellum
What part of the brain is responsible for hearing, language, object recognition and memory for things
Temporal lobe
What condition causes a loss of one side of your vision due to stroke i.e. people may only eat one side of their plate and what part of the brain has this been affected by
Hemianopia - visual coretx/ Parietal lobe/ occipital lobe
What condition has the inability to remember faces and what part of the rbain has this been affected by
Prosopagnosia - temporal lobe
What condition has a reduced awareness of stimuli on one side of space even though no sensory may be loss and what part of the brain has this been affected by
Hemispatial neglect syndrome - Parietal lobe
What condition is coherent of what they're saying and understands meaning of questions but has great difficulty in production
What condition can move limbs but has lost voluntary control over them and what part of the brain has this been affected by
Alien hand syndrome - frontal cortex/ frontal lobe/ cerebrum
What illusion has taught us the the familiar shape of an object can overrule weak binocular cues
What illusion taught us that percieved size depends on perceived distance and size of nearby objects i.e. the moon looks bigger enar the horizon, but its size has not changed
The moon illusion
What illusion has taught us that colour depends on perceived lighting, shape ad shadow
Lotto's cubes
What illusion taught us that perception i.e. colours are indiciated and come from comparing activity in different types of cones (i.e. neurons) - L cone, M cone, S cone - as wavelengths
Van Lier's Stars
What illusion has taught us that face perception is based on comparison - this means with what you've seen before
the thatcher illusion
What condition has a very fluent speech production but is meaningless due to poor responding
Wernicke's aphasia - temporal lobe
What is evolution best conceptualised as
A tree - animals are twigs - ancestral species are branches
What factors are needed to natural selection to change population of animals over several generations
Variation and competition
What is the number of synaptic connections in your brain
quadrillion
They inhibit information which is sent further until a threshold is reached and send a pulse to the synapse
neuron
Enhances neurotransmission
Agonist
Reduces neurotransmission
Antagonist
A drug that INHIBITS neurotransmitter REUPTAKE is
agonist
What drug is a block reuptake of 5-HT/ serotnin e.g. Prozac
Anti-depressants
What drug is a GAMA agonsist which has a non-specific effect that acts on many bodily tissues
Alcohol
What drug activates a class of acetyl choline receptors and activates sympathetic nervous system
Nicotine
What chemical is an excitatory, sensory input/ motor output
Glutamate
What chemical is inhibitory which is reduced in epilepsy and is affected by many things including alcohol
GABA
What chemical is modulatory and feels like a pleasure/ reward
Dopamine
What chemical is modulatory and gives a feeling of general weel being (anti-depressants)
Serotnin
What chemical is a body brain communication, a flight/ fight response
Adrenalin/ nor-adrenalin
What condition has an intact IQ, profound anterograde amnesia, disorentation in time and a preserved implicit memory. procedural leanring
Organic amnestic syndrome
What condition has patients unaware to notice infromation contrlateral to the injury (meaning that something has happened to the left side of the brain usually), where one side of the brain is blocked by a blood vessel meaning oxygenated blood doesn't reach the other side i.e. they might only draw on one side of a clock/ copy half of a flower
Unilateral neglect syndrome
What condition has a profound loss of word meanings/ inability to recognise objects and has a selective loss of semantic knowledge - and example of this was the DM (surgeon) who couldn't remember the names of his surgical intrsuments
Semantic dementia
What case: English musician, 1985 had a brain infection due to herpes simplex encephalitis which destroyed his frontal lobes where his memory only lasted for a few seconds, he could remember to play the piano as if remembering how to ride a bike
Clive wearing
What are the three levels of analysis
Feelings, thoughts and attitudes
Who's theory of personality types is linked to face/ body shapes
Kretschmer
What did Kretchmer conclude about body types being linked to personality types
Those of bigger weight - friendly, predisposed towards manic depression and extroverted
Those of lighter weight - timid, have synptoms of schizophrenia and introverted
Who's theory (of intelligence) included the 2 factor theory in 1926, the G factor - general/ common to all tests and teh S factor - specific to type of test and use of analogy problems in intelligence testing
Spearman
Who's theory (of intelligence) was the 7 factors of intelligence - verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, numerical ability, spatial visulisation, memory, reasoning, perceptual speed
Thurstone
Who used factor analysis to compress Allport's word list and did the following: took Allport's word list, collected loads of data from 1000 subjects and factor analysed 16 personality factors
3 factors were put forth where everyone by the 70s, was foudn to have fallen somewhere inbetween teh categories which were extraversion - introversion, neuroticism - emotionally stable, psychoticism - self control
Cattell and Eysneck
Whos theory of intelligence took 18,000 words in the disctionary that describes aspects of personality where there were 4,000 words for stable personality traits suggesting that there were 4,000 traits overall
Allport
Who's theory of intelligece was a further analysis of Thurstone's data and included two major factors which were Gf - fluid intelligence (ability to learn and navigate new situations) and Gc - crystallised intelligence (accumulated knowledge you can recall as needed)
Horn and Cattell
Who's theory of intelligence had three parts and was called the triarchic theory which the three aspects of intelligence included componential intelligence, experiential intelligence and contextual intelligence
Sternberg
Who's theory of intelligence was the multiple intelligence theory which argued that intelligence falls into 7 categories; linguistic intelligence, musical intelligence, logical/ mathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, bodily/ kinesthetic intelligence and two types of personal intelligence
Gardner
Who's theory of intelligence refered to social and emotional components of interactiosn with others; the more socially sensitive and emotioanlly sensitive you were to the needs and behaviours of others, the more successful your interaction would be. the theory is called the emotional intelligence
Goleman
What test was used to measure intelligence, which was crreated by the Stanford-Binet scale
WAIS
When the WAIS schools in the USA were compared to Raven Matrices schools in Holland to show that people of the 20th century were increasing in intelligence, what was this effect called
The flynn effect
What disorder is known for a 'lack of appetite due to nervousness'
Anorexia
What disorder is known for being abel to 'eat and ox' due to nervousness (but would most likely force themselves to through up after)
Bulimia
What disorder comsumes substances of no significant nutritional value such as soil, soap or ice, has a normal BMI but leads to malnutrition, has lead poisoning causing Stomach problems and Iron deficiency etc
Pica in adults
What disorder reduces their food intake, has a fear of becomign fat, had no lack of appetite, an intense fear of obesity, has a high mortality rate (suicide) and has a preoccupation with food
Anorexia nervosa
What disorder has a loss of control of food intake, a fear of becoming fat, binges/ gorges, purges/ excersices and concerned with their body shape
Bulimia nervosa
What are the medical complications for anorexia
Cold touch/ bluish skin
Poor temperature
Low BP
Heart arrhythmia - hypokalemnia
Hair thinning
Downy hair growth on body
What are the medical complications for bulimia
Kidney damage
Heart arrhythmia - hypokalemnia
Throat and mouth damage
Dental damage - due to stmoach acids
Mouth ulcers
Swolen glands
Who stated that Anorexia nervosa have the lowest BMI and anorexic and bulimic individuals have an overestimate size of their bodies
Tovee et al, 2003
What could be the leading causes for AN and BN
Biological factors - genetic incidence (could run in the family)
Family influences - parental pressures/ comments on appearance
Sociocultural factors - peer and media influences/ media
Individuals drives - idealising thinness (barbie doll/ actresses)
What are the treatments for Anorexia
Family therapy
Cognitive behavioural therapy
No reliable medical intervention
Poor response to treatment - if worsened - forced feeding
What are the treatments for Bulimia
Medications - anti-depressants to decrease binge frequency
Cognitive behavioural therapy
For the biological/ medical model, what types of conditions do they cover, what treatments are appropriate for these and what are the pros and cons of this model
Conditions:
Depression, Schizophrenia, Substance abuse, Eating disorders, ADHD, OCD
Treatments:
Pharmacology - anti-psychotic drugs, anti-depressant drugs, anti-anxiety derugs, mood stabilisng drugs
Neurosrugery Deep brain stimulation
Therapy
Pros:
Heredity of conditions
Definite treatment routes - pharmacology
Cons:
Many disorders have no clear cause
few conditions 100% penetrant
For the Psychoanalytic viewpoint, what do they look at, what types of conditions do they cover, what treatments are appropriate for these and what are the pros and cons of this model
Looks at:
Developments of different aspects of persoanality
Unresolved childhood trauma - haunts adulthood
Locked in unconscious mind
Types of conditions:
Anxiety
Stress
Mood
Developmental disorders
Treatments:
Psychoanalysis/ therapy
Pros:
Idea of developmental issues
Latent effects in childhood showing predispositioned adulthood
Cons:
Does not consider current issues of patient e.g. adults
not scientifically grounded
For the behaviourist viewpoint, what do they look at, what types of conditions do they cover, what treatments are appropriate for these and what are the pros and cons of this model
Looks at:
Behaviour mainly determined by environment
Abnormal behaviour
failure to learn 'normal' adaptive behaviours
learning the 'wrong' behaviours
Types of conditions:
Phobias
gambling
addiction
types of treatments:
behavioural therapy
desensitisation
modelling
motivation/ rewarded behaviours
Pros:
highlights role of learning in behavioural expression
cons:
implies pure environemtnal aetiology
little evidence
For the cognitive model, what do they look at, what types of conditions do they cover, what treatments are appropriate for these and what are the pros and cons of this model
Looks at:
Information processes (e.g. memory, attention, thinking etc)
Internal reinforcement
Schemas
Types of conditions:
phobias
anxiety
depression
personality disorders
types of treatments:
cognitive-behavioural treatment
Pros:
Highlights mental processing
step up from behaviourism
distorted thoughts leads to illness
cons:
implies pure environmental aetiology
What is the aetiology of social phobia e.g. haemophobia
Evolutionary bias to fearful stimuli
Personality would affect development (if child is brought up around anxious parents, they would then develop the disorder)
Previous life experience
Could be due to genes - similarity in MZ twins for animal phobias
What are the treatments for social phobias e.g. haemophobia
Exposure therapy
Cognitive behaviour therapy
What disorder if a ''what if'' disorder - worried something terrible would happen with occurrence of unwanted and intrusive thoughts/ images, obsessive, repetitive behaviours or mental acts
OCD
which condition is used as a defence mechanism - occupy the mind to displace painful thoughts
OCD
What test was used to help OCD and schizophrenia
Wisconsin card sorting test
What disorder has positive symptoms of thought disorder, hallucinations, delusions and poor impulse control and negative symptoms of flattened emotions, poor speech, lack of initiative and social withdrawal
Schizophrenia
What is Bipolar I made of
Depression and Mania
What is Bipolar II made of
Depression and Hypomania
Cyclothymia is a subtype of what disorder
Bipolar disease
What percentage of people are affected at some point of their lives with Bipolar disease
25%
What class is a social phobia of
Anxiety disorder
What class does Dysthemia fall under
Depressive Disorders
What class does Mania fall under
Bipolar related disorders/ depressive disorders
What class do Anorexia and Bulimia fall under
Feeding and Eating disorder
What class does OCD fall under
Anxiety disorders
In the Mogg et al (2004) paper examining attentional bias to faces showing anger or happiness,
the results showed that
n comparison to controls, people with social phobia showed a greater bias to angry faces, and a
reduced bias to happy faces
The basic colour after-effect shows us that
colour vision depends on the ratio of cone activity
Visible light is visible while ultraviolet and infrared are not because
visible light is named after what the human eye can detect.
A task in which participants are presented with a list of words to learn, followed by a test in
which they were presented with the originals, plus new words and instructed to identify those
words that were on the list is known as
A free recall test
Nature vs Nurture - Biological factors, genes, proteins, neurotransmitters
Nature
Nature vs Nurture - Environemntal factors, learning experiences, parenting, childhoos trauma etc
Nurture
What did Alexander and Hines (2002) find out
Evolution plays a major role in choice as malemonkeys were more likely to play with male toys and female monkeys were more likely to pay with female toys
How many pairs of chromosomes do we have
22 + 2 for gender = 46 chromosomes in total
What symbols indicate a female chromosome and what do they look like
XX and two lines of smae length
What symbols indicate a mae chromosome and what do they look like
XY and two lines which one is less than half the length of another
What is the word - transmission of traits from parents to offspring (genes) evolution
Heredity
What is the word - the degree of variation in trait in a population that is the result of genetic variation between individuals (genetic variation)
Heritability
What is the word - a result of genetic variatio or environmental effects
Variation
What type of twins are two babies that are genetically identical and share 100% of their genetic material (genes made of DNA) and always same sex
Identical (Monozygotic) MZ
What type of twins are two babies that share half genetic material (same as any pair of siblings), can be of same sex or opposite
Fraternal (Dizygotic) DZ
What did Fraga et al (2005) conclude about twins
Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins
What are epigenetics
Additional genes in summary
involves alteration of DNA assocaited molecules but doesn't change underlying DNA sequence yet changes gene expression so genes are silenced, blocked. they can be inherited and are revesible
Where do epigenetics change in
Stress/ anxiety, cancer, addicition, schizophrenia
The ........... of an organism is the complete set of genes specifying how its PHENOTYPE will develop
genome
It's a region of DNA, unit of heredity, sequence of nucleotides, one can make one product (protein) via transcription and translation
Gene
What is the process of making a Protein
Straight line for the helix of DNA is seperated into 3 bases which are called the triplet code and those letters from the DNA are matched with other letters of mRNA (Transcription), then 3 letters come together to make a protein (translation) where protein becomes useable
Our phenotypes are formed by
our genotype and effect of our environment
OCD, PTSD, ADHD, Anxiety etc can be caused by what (biological terms)
Genetic mutation - unlucky combinations key alleles
These are the causes of which condition: preparedness hypothesis, temperament and personality, previous experience, conditioning, concordance in MZ twins
OCD
What kind of behaviour is: statistically frequent, positive bias to societ, socially normal, does not lead to personal distress or harmful dysfunction and is expected and appropriate
Normal behaviour
What kind of behaviour is statistically infrequent (rare), negative bias to society, socially deviant, leads to personal distress and harmful dysfunction and is unexpected and inappropriate
Abnormal behaviour
What is a mental health disorder
Clinically significant disturbance, significan distress, deviance or conflict results from dysfunction in the individual
How many DSM5 are there
300
Rosenhan 1973, 'on being sane in insance places': described what happened
12 pseudo-patients faked symptoms and were admitted to mental hospital, they acted normal on ward (this was not detected by staff but was detected by other patients), they were treated poorly and not listened too because they had been labelled as schizphrenic therefore anything they did/said was seen as a sign of their 'illness'
What can the wisconsin card sorting test identify
bipolar disease, schizophrenia and OCD
If an individual was asked to perform a stand up comedy routine and they refused, what disease would they most likely be suffering from
Social phobia
What do patients with clinical disagnosis do/ not do
Don't integrate with society well
show unexpected behvaiour
show some form of distress
What did the colour changing card trick show us
Not everything we see/hear enters our consciousness (e.g. looking at something isn't the same as noticing it) and that we can decide what to pay attention to (e.g. be selective on one 'message' and surpress another
Are people supposed to be slower/ quicker with an incongruent list
Slower
Are people supposed to be slower/ quicker with a congruent/ normal list
quicker
What intereferes us with our time and to the stimulus, where people make much more errors
Incongruency
What facilitates us where we make far less mistakes
Congruency
What effect measures selective attention
Stroop effect
What is the stroop effect
an experimental paradigm that allows us to study selective attention mechanisms e.g. through the colour word task, we need to concentrate and consciously suppress the meaning of the ink colour but we don't seem to be able to ignore the words when we're truing to focus on the colour
Why do we need selective attention
Broadbent - Brain has limited capacity for conscious processing thus would be overwhelmed thus, we don't waste limited resources processing irrelevant information and focus attention to enhance processing of relevant information
What are the processes that attention than be controlled by and what do they mean
Controlled processing:
involves mental effrto, limited and subject to distraction
Automatic processing:
happens independently of effort, causes distraction when incongruent with the focal task
What can the Posner cueing method investigate
Spatial attention
What does early selection do
puts limitations on processing
What does late selection do
puts limitations on responding
Explain dichotic listening
listeners can tell if unattended message is a voice or sound, male or female but cant report anything that was said or even it was in a foreign language e.g. later recall test, 'they thre stones at the side of the river' or 'they thre stones at the building society', answer you get depends on how you measured dependent variable
What is priming
a technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influence how people respond to a subsequent stimulus
What is negative priming
Inhibits (prevents) processing of target/ stimuli
What is positive priming
Enhances processing of target/ stimuli
If you hear your name being mentioned when you are not part of the conversation, what are you experiencing
The cocktail party effect
What 3 factors are needed to make a vowel
Height, Backness and roundedness
What 3 facots are needed to make a consonant
Voice, place and manner
The consonant sound of the words ''zip''/''sip'', ''bat''/''pat'', and ''dip''/''tip'' differ in terms of
voice
The consonant sound of the words ''pat''/''tat''/''cat'', ''bot''/''dot''/''got'' differ in terms of
Place
The consonant sound of the words ''nose''/''doze'' (nasal/stop), ''dip''/''zip'' (stop/ fricative) differ in terms of
Manner
If there is a delay between the start of a speech and the onset of the vibration of the voal cord, what are you experiencing
Voice onset time (VOT)
if what you hear changes based on the text you are looking at/ the mouth movement of the person you are looking at, you are experiencing
McGurk effect
How does speech develop (for infants generally)
Head turn, sucking and looking
What are semantic memories
knowledge about things in the world and their inter-relationships: words and meaning, objects, places, people - and 'encyclopaedic' knowledge of facts shared by members of a community e.g. 'snow is white', 'margaret thatcher the first female prime minister in UK'
What are semantic networks
Organising knowledge of what things are - defining attributes e.g. yellow - colour or food or banana, food or monkey etc
evidence for defining-attribute view
does a dog bark v does a dog reproduce, when asked to list defining attributes, people tend to start with ones on same level as 'probe' concept, speed of response depends on distance travelled to find information.
Problems with defining attributes
Certain attributes seem to be more salient i.e. 'stand out' than others, e.g. people mention pink as an attribute of salmon more often than it has fins as 'having fins' is further away in hierarchy
Explain the memory systems, adapted from Atkinson and Shiffrin 1968
Sensor y input - comes from our sensors, supposed to enter sensory register, transferred into short-term memory (where we store everything we can keep in mind instantly), transferred into a more durable long-term memory. Forgetting can happen any point during that cycle
What is an immediate, conscious system to store, process and manipulate information
Central executive
What task is used to test the central executive - what does it do
Dual task - multi-task, where you ask people to do two things at once where they have to divide their attention between those tasks
What does the phonological loop deal with
auditory information, so bend listening to someone, learn a telephone number, where they go over and over that information
How is the phonological loop tested
Digit span test - measure how auditory information we can hold in cronological loop
What factor of the central executive meaures how much visual information you can hold
visuospatial sketchpad
What task measures visuospatial sketchpad
spatial span task - grid on the computer and different locations are lit up and they would increase in number, measures what the largest amount someone can hold their spatial span - this helps increase memory production
What is an episodic buffer
transitional stage between short term and long term memory i.e. we park information for a little bit where it isn't in our conscious store anymore
What types of long-term memory are there
explicit memory - episodic/ semantic memory and implicit memory
Is this explicit or episodic memories: memorise we can verbalise
Explicit memory
Is this explicit or episodic memories: memory for specific events - own history and own autobiography
episodic memory
What type of memories are memories we haven't consciously activated information from
Long-term memories
What are implicit memories
Riding a bike - non-declarative
what are explicit episodic memory
specific events, associated with contextual detail, require reconstruction of event to find the memory e.g. memory of what you had for breakfast last tuesday
What are explicit semantic memory
facts, concepts, general knowledge e.g. snow is white, do dogs bark (answer based on experiencing dogs barking), do dogs produce milk (unlikely to answer based on specific experience)
what is a implicit procedural memory
unconscious, difficult to verbalise how we do them e.g. riding bikes, drivin, playing chess, problem solving, sudoku i.e. if we do things over and over again they become automatic and procedural
if your perception guides motor outputs which produces perception again, what are you experiencing
perceptual motor loop
true or false - we can learn information about a topic unaware of without having conscious knowledge about it already due to implicit learning
true
when people learn a list of words, what part of the list do they most likely recall and why
the words from the beginnig (primacy) - due to more rehearsal of first words
the words at the end (recency) - due to words still being in short-term memory
Why do we forget
insufficient encoding (not paying attention), levels of processing (deeply processed information is encoded in a shallow, superficial way), loos of information, effects of retreival information (recall test v recognition test, free versus vued recall test)
what is recall
retreival of information from the past
A task in which participants are presented with a list of words to learn, followed by a test in which they were presented with the originals, plus new words and instructed to identify those words that were on the list is known as
free recall test
A task in which participants are presented with a list of words to learn, followed by a test in which they are asked to remember those words with prompts e.g. if the word that needs to be remembered if feather, a cued prompt would be bird
cued recall test
what is recognition
identification of an item as encountered before (as old) amongst novel items (distractors)
what are the two stages of theory recall
1. search and retrieval, 2. validation and recognition
what can go wrong with memory
occurrence of false memories and recall of events/ information that did not happen
why should we study false memories
assess validity of eyewitness testimonies, find out about organisaition/ reconstructive nature of memory and understand clinical conditions/ brain injury
what did Mutler 1978 discover about recognition
that it's not always easier than recall e,g, recognition test - given list of famous names, recall test - cue plus first name
performance was better on the recall test than recognition test
who put forth the dual model of recognition and what was it
Mandler 1980, Jacoby 1991, familiarity - fast process of 'knowing' in the absence of contextual detail i.e. knowing someone but not sure where from thus can't remember names but go through scenarios of possibilities where they might know from
recollection - slower process that involves retrieval of contextual details - all the things we know about a person
Morris, Bransford and Franks 1977, on neither encoding nor retrieval:
Deep encoding task (''the .... had a silver engine'' - train?), shallow encoding task (''.... rhymes with legal'' - eagle?), recognition test - standard - was this word on the list? Train, Rhyming - was this work rhyming with one on the list? Regal
what are the three levels of analysis
thoughts, behaviour and feelings
Who claimed the scientific investigation of how the thoughts feelings and behaviours of individuals and influenced by the actual, imagined of implied presence of others - intra individual side
Allport
Who claimed the scientific study of the effects of social and cognitive processes on the way individuals percieve, influence and relate to others - inter individua
Smith and Mackie
Social processes; Bateson Nettle and Roberts 2006 explain study;
people went to coffee shop with optional things of being able to overpay, for different weeks, banners were alternated between pictures of flowers or eyes and it showed the difference in how much money was being given/ collected i.e. more money was given when the poster was of eyes- case of social psychological pressure triggering the brain that someone was watching them - thus have to pay but not factual way of thinking
who claimed that people constructu their won reality through cognitive processes (memories, perceptions, thoughts, emotions. motives) and socia processes (culture and socialisation). and social influence pervades all social life
Smith and Mackie
Who claimed that cyclists race faster when competing against others than when alome. Additionally children turned fishing reels faster when competing with another child than when alone
Triplett
The tendency to perform better in the presence of others than when alone
Social facilitation
The tendency to perform worse in the presence of others than when alone
Social inhibition
When can social facilitation occur
when task is simple, or behaviour is well-learned
when can social inhibition occur
when task is complex or behaviour is not well learned
What was conducted/ resulted from the Milgram studies 1963, 1974
60% of individuals still gave the lethal shock, explaining why guards at cc performed lethal activities even though recruited from normal public, showed high social/ societal responsibility and how society is prepared to do these types of things - very influential experiment
what is reffered to when saying it is how people attend to, percieve, sotre and respond to social information e.g. memory, concept formation, sensory and perceptual skills
social cognition
Frits Heider developed that concept of cognitive balance where we represent social information in particular social realtions - what was this
Troitts - symbols of 3 people, traingle with points A, B, C. If a '-' was presented between two people (i.e. two letters e.g. A and C) then it meant that they disliked each other, if there was 3 + around the traingle, all liked eachother, if there was 3 - around the traingle, it referred to three cliques
What was Asch;s configurational model
people do not form impressions in a piecemeal fashion - we make holistic judgements of another person. meaning of traits may depend on context or on different traits - some perceptual features have more influence than others. e.g. if someone is warm - they might be intelligent and skilfull whom is more likely to be labeled as being generous, happy and humorous
What was Kelly's 1950 study
group of students recieved a guest lecturere where half of them were told he was a warm individual and half were told he was a cold individual, a survey was filled out post lecturer where it was discovered that althought they all just attended the same lecture, there was a sginificant difference in evaluations
What are schemas
Mental framework that organises and synthesises information i.e. aids us in interpreting the word, gives us structure (examplar, prototype)
what is defined here: schemas about groups that are shared by different people i.e. characterise large number of people in small numbers, ignore within group variability and CAN BE WRONG and is related to prejudice and discrimination thus is an overemphasis of negative attributes
stereotypes
what is defined here: cognitive shortcuts, rule of thumb; reduces complex problems to manageable ones - Tversky and Kahneman
Heuristics
representativeness or availability heuristic - objects are assigned to categories that share similar attributes
representativeness
representativeness or availability heuristic - importance and frequency of events is guided by the ease with which it comes to mind
availability
conjunction error - name the problem - female has a career and is active for women's rights, is she a business woman or that a feminist
Linda Problem
Explain the Robbers Cave study 1954
Summer camp of boys (11-12 yo) and were seperated into 2 groups. after a few weeks of being apart, both groups started to become aggressive e.g. picnic was organised one day and it was sstuck in the mud so everybody had to coordinate together, subgroups came together and since they had a common aim, they overcame the hostility
what can exist within certain groups e.g. race, age, gender and is a thought that is created by people e.g. kindergarten girls are more likely to play with dolls
stereotypes
what did Blair et al 2004 find about analysing facial features of random black and white inmates who had been given equivalent sentences
took sample of 216 b and w inamtes and found that the harshness of sentences for the black sample was more significant i.e. those with stereotypical afro centric features were more likely to recieve harsher sentences than those of the lesser feaures
What term is described as having an affective response towards a group or its members where it is based on prejudgeent without the individual being known and is often negative i.e. it is a less favourable evaluative of attributes of other groups
prejudice
what term is described as being a negative behaviour towards individuals based on group membership i.e. refusing members of a group access to dseired resources e.g. not allowing black people to sit on public nuses and can be performed both blatantly e.g. not serving black individuals at restaurants and subtly e.g. sexist jokes
discrimination
what term is described as an expectation or belief that can influence your behaviors, thus causing the belief to come true i.e. has three elements to it - expectation, behaviour and reinforced stereotype
self fulfilling prophecy
Shih Pittinski and Ambady 1999 studied the stereotypes threat where stereotype 1 was women are bad at maths and stereotype 2 asian are good at maths. asian women were saked to perform a math test and before the test, either ethnicity or gender was cued, what were the results
Ethnicity cue - performance enhanced
Gender cue - performance deteriration
who performed the contact hypothesis theory claiming that bringing people from different ethnic groups together would decrease prejudice and discrimination
Allport
what were the conditions for intergorup contact according to allport in order to reduce discrimination and prejudice
personal interaction, equal status, cooperation towards common goals and supportive environment and social norms
what are the theories of intergroup relations
cognitive account: social categorization, motivational account: social identity theory and economic account: realistic conflict theory
What theory and who propsed covariation principle, consensus, consistency and distinctiveness
Kelly's coveriation theory
The process that involves percieving, interpreting, storing information about and responding to the social world are the subject of the study of social what
cognition
what is the mening of endogenous
voluntary attention direction i.e. attending not the same as looking at e.g. appearance/ disappearance of '5' too short to allow eye movement
what is the meaning of exogenous
reflecive automatic attention i.e. attention drawn due to an external stimulus e.g. flashing light or noise etc
what theory claims that part of our identity is derived from group memberships and that we compare our group with other groups e.g. relations between groups influence our self concepts and that we strive for a positive group image
social identity theory
can attributions be biased - example
actor-observer effect, fundamental attribution error occurs when we explain behaviour of others, but not of oursecles
- observers overestimates effect of dispositions
- actors overestimate effects of situation
orvis et al 1976, couples described cause of disagreements in relationships
- own behaviour: situational attributions
- partner's behaviour: dispositional attributions
what term is defined as 'anything we have thoughts about which are connected with affect e.g. we like certain friends/ hate certain films etc'
attitude
three components of what are these: an evaluation inferred from felings, beliefs and behaviours, not observable, but have to be inferred and are observed variable
attitudes
Whos study upon attitudes was this: White professor who travelled across USA with young Chinese couple
Back then there was an influence, thought of Chinese people were taking over manual labour
Stopped at 251 establishments (e.g. hotels, restaurants)
Recieved well in 250 - no problems
6 months later - mail questionnaire - will you accept members of Chinese race as guests in you establishments
128 replies - 92 % said no
LaPiere 1934
Whos study upon attitudes was this:
K u t n e r W i l k i n s a n d Y a r r o w 1 9 5 2 T w o w h i t e w o m e n a n d o n e b l a c k w o m a n v i s i t e d 1 1 r e s t a u r a n t s
A d m i t t e d a n d s e r v e d i n e a c h r e s t a u r a n t
a t e r a s k e d e a c h r e s t a u r a n t w h e t h e r t h e y w o u l d a c c e p t a t a b l e r e s e r v a t i o n f o r a g r o u p i n c l u d i n g a b l a c k p e r s o n
6 s a i d n o , 5 s a i d y e s
D i f f e r e n c e o f s a y i n g s a n d d o i n g s
Kutner et al 1952
what theory claimed that attitude to behaviour + subjective norm = behavioural intention = behaviour
Theory of reasoned action
what did Ajzen add to the theory of planned behaviour
percieved behavioural control
what theory was proposed by Festinger and concerns the relationships between cognitions
cognitive dissonance theory
when are we likely to experience cognitive dissonance theory
whenever we become aware of an inconsistency e.g. dissonant relationship, between two or more cognitions
what is a key way to reduce dissonance
bringing one's attitudes into line with one's actions
in Festinger and Carlsmith, did those of 1 dollar group cogntivie dissonance have a more favourable evaluation of the tasks - if so why
yes, because they told themselves a lie so they didn't do it mothing
what is and what are the two routes within the Elaboration likelihood model
ELM is an example of dual process theory of attitude change and has a distinction between a 'central route' and a 'peripheral route'