AS PSYCHOLOGY | Unit 2 exam revision
Why is neuroscience ethical?
(+) Has helped understand the causes of criminal behaviour e.g. Raine used brain scanning techniques and found reduced activity in the brains of NGRI patients in regions linked to violence, e.g. left amygdala, left thalamus. It means criminal brain activity can be identified and treated (e.g. DBS), so the likelihood of re-offending is reduced.
(+) Neuroscience is used to enhance neurological function, e.g. TDCS is used to stimulate brain regions with electric currents and Cohen Kadosh et al found it improves maths, language, attention and memory capabilities. May benefit revising students and the disadvantaged (poor cognitive capability). Highlights the scientific benefits.
(+) An application is neuromarketing, e.g. the use of fMRI brain scans to determine effective marketing campaigns that increase brain activity, so engage at a biological level. Can bring economic benefits by boosting profits of firms which boost tax paid.
Why is neuroscience unethical?
(-) Modern psychosurgery can have unintended consequences. These are for the long-term, e.g. seizures, and altered moods. Therefore modifying criminal behaviour using psychosurgery would be unethical.
(-) There are ethical limitations to TCDS technology. There are no training or licensing rules for UK practitioners so could lead to poorly qualified clinicians or self-administration, potentially causing psychological harm. There are therefore ethical consequences.
(-) Accessing information about consumer preferences is not new but having access to inner thoughts is different. Wilson et al believed free will may potentially be manipulated using neuromarketing, which raises further issues of valid informed consent, privacy, and confidentiality. Therefore there are ethical issues as our ability to make informed decisions based on free will is removed.
What are the cultural implications of neuroscience?
(-) Cross-cultural differences in brain activity have been revealed, e.g. Han suggests there is increasing evidence that East Asian people have stronger activity in some areas of the prefrontal cortex, so failing to consider these cultural differences when conducting psychological research would be unethical
What are the social implications of neuroscience?
(+) Positive economic benefits for society, e.g. Thomas Morris estimates depression in adults in England cost the UK economy £9.1 billion in 2000. Therefore, curing these disorders could save the economy billions of pounds suggesting positive social implications.
How would you conclude a neuroscience essay?
This essay has discussed the benefits and drawbacks of neuroscience. In my opinion, neuroscience is beneficial because It is clear that it can offer us great insight into how the brain works and can explain normal and abnormal behaviour in a 'stigma-free' way, unlike the cognitive approach which blames the patient.
How would you introduce a neuroscience essay?
Neuroscience can be defined as any treatment or research study which examines the structure and function of the brain or nervous system. Much of neuroscience raises ethical concerns, and these are often resolved in terms of costs versus benefits.
How would you introduce a PCG essay?
A primary care-giver is the person who is most responsible for an infant's health, development and wellbeing. Traditionally, in many global societies, this has been the role of the mother, however this view has had many ethical implications. Recent research has raised the question of whether a woman is always the best PCG of a child, or if someone else could fill this role.
Why should a mother be the PCG?
(+) Psychodynamic psychology has traditionally suggested that the mother is a very important person in the child's psychosexual development. E.g. Freud believed the mother-child relationship to be of the greatest importance in the oral stage (0-18 months). Problems in any psychosexual stage could lead to fixation, which could have a lasting impact on personality. Frustration in the oral stage could lead to a pessimistic, envious or sarcastic adult, with orally damaging habits e.g. smoking. Therefore, Freud suggests the mother is the best PCG as her love acts as a prototype for every relationship the infant will go on to have.
(+) There are negative consequences for children who are separated from their mothers for prolonged periods of time. E.g. Bowlby's study on 44 juvenile thieves demonstrated that prolonged maternal separation can have lasting negative emotional impacts e.g. developing an affectionless character. His maternal deprivation hypothesis is that attachment to one caregiver has special importance for the survival of the infant (monotropy). Therefore Bowlby believed the mother is the best PCG.
(+) Biological and social factors suggest women are better psychologically equipped to form intense emotional relationships. E.g. the female hormone oestrogen underlies caring behaviour, as well as the release of oxytocin after birth and during breast feeding. This therefore suggests that due to biology mothers are more able to be the PCG
Why shouldn't a mother be the PCG?
(-) It's important to consider the historical context of Freud's ideas. E.g. at the time he was writing, women did not have the right to vote in the UK and their lives were lived solely at home, so his ideas may simply reflect the period's social norms and values. Also, Freud did recognise the role of the father, e.g. an oedipus complex must be resolved in boys to form healthy relationships in adulthood. Therefore, there is some evidence in his work that the mother does not need to be PCG.
(-) Although Bowlby used the term 'maternal' deprivation hypothesis, he later said this did not mean it was exclusive to the mother. For example, he stated that a child should just experience a warm, intimate and continuous relationship with their mother or a permanent mother substitute. Therefore, 'mothering' is not exclusive to a child's actual mother.
(-) Other research has challenged that fathers are less equipped to care for children than mothers. E.g. Frodi et al showed men and women videotapes of infants crying and found no differences in their biological responses, even though their social responses differed. This implies that both sexes are equally biologically sensitive to a child's needs.
What are the cultural implications of the mother being PCG?
(-) The role of nuture over nature in who becomes PCG is shown by looking at different child-rearing practices around the world. For example, in Africa's Aka tribe, fathers are within reach of their infants 47% of the time and may even allow them to suckle on their nipples to simulate breast feeding whilst the mother looks for food. This shows that men can be equally as responsive to an infant's needs as women.
What are the social implications of the mother being PCG?
(-) Women may feel they are less able to return to work after having children as society may overemphasise their importance. This has further negative social implications for the family and their economic position if the mother earns more than the father, as it could limit their economic position and reduce the size of the economy by limiting the number of women in the workforce. Shared parental leave has been introduced by the UK government to avoid this.
How would you conclude a mother is the best PCG essay?
In conclusion, this essay has discussed the debate over the role of mothers and fathers in the development of children. In my opinion, healthy development relies on multiple important relationships and the PCG does not have to be the mother, because Bowlby proposed that secondary attachments provide a vital emotional safety net for children where their PCG is absent.
How do you introduce a 'conditioning techniques to control children' essay?
According to behaviourists, our actions can be influenced through classical and operant conditioning. This is based on the idea that we are environmentally determined (no free will). However, using these techniques to manipulate a child's behaviour is highly controversial as it has negative implications, despite the benefits to the children, their parents, peers and society.
Why is the use of conditioning techniques at home appropriate?
(+) The use of positive reinforcement and punishment has long been used to create positive behaviours in children. E.g. Gill asked parents to encourage chore completion by the payment of pocket money (positive reinforcement) or postponement of pocket money (punishment), and research concluded this was successful as children completed 20% of household chores. Therefore, conditioning can have positive impacts on children's behaviours at home.
(+) Many schools use conditioning to help manage student behaviour, for example, operant conditioning through the use of star charts. McAllister et al found that increased praise and disapproval from a teacher led to a decrease in inappropriate talking when compared to a control condition. This shows the positive impact of condition on society as students will understand appropriate communication so have better qualifications and increased opportunities in the future.
Why is the use of conditioning techniques at home inappropriate?
(-) Techniques such as the naughty step are frequently criticised by childcare experts for being unethical. For example, Morris claims it can have long-term, negative emotional effects, as children do not have the same ability as adults to reflect on their behaviour and verbalise the feelings they experience. Their development may be impacted as they are often seen in a distressed state during the experience. Therefore, there is risk of psychological harm from being left alone on the naughty step and being labelled as 'naughty' (Womack).
(-) Some educational approaches e.g. Montessori education believe that rewards and punishment as seen in conditioning are harmful to a child's development as they interfere with a child's desire to learn. For example, without positive reinforcement for good grades and punishment for bad grades, children are encouraged to learn because they want to and face no harm. This suggests some schools may consider conditioning to be harmful to healthy development.
What are the cultural implications of conditioning children?
(-) Conditioning techniques and reward systems are not always seen in schools from different cultures. Lewis observed that Japanese primary schools rarely use praise or rewards but that children seem to be internally motivated. This suggests conditioning techniques are not necessary in some cultures and may prove harmful by interfering with internal drives to learn. Techniques are not universal.
What are the social implications of conditioning children?
(+) Conditioning has positive social and economic impacts. For example, children with various psychological and medical conditions may benefit from conditioning, e.g. ABA, developed by Lovaas to increase the quality of social interactions with children with autism. ABA involves the use of rewards to stimulate behaviour e.g. eye contact. The positive social implication here is that conditioning helps these children successfully interact with others and function within society.
How would you conclude a conditioning on children essay?
In conclusion, this essay has discussed the benefits and drawbacks of conditioning children. The process of socialisation inevitably involves conditioning, and in my opinion, there are better ways to teach children than through punishments such as the naughty step. For example, through the observation of role models, as proposed by SLT.
What are research aims?
An aim identifies the purpose (goal) of the investigation. It is a straightforward expression of what the researcher is trying to find out from conducting an investigation.
What is an independent variable?
The variable that is directly manipulated by the researcher
What is a dependent variable?
The variable which is measured by the researcher when investigating the outcome of IV manipulation.
What are extraneous variables?
The variables which are not being measured or manipulated but affect the results of all participants' behaviour equally
What are confounding variables?
Variables which affect some participants but not others and have a negative consequence for the validity/reliability of results. They therefore make it difficult to establish a causal relationship between IV and DV
What are situational variables?
Variables resulting from the situation or environment, e.g. noise
What are experimenter variables?
Variables caused by the experimenter's behaviour, e.g. tone of voice.
What are participant variables?
Variables relating to the participant e.g. participant's personality
What are co-variables?
A variable in a correlational analysis that varies in relation to another variable
What is operationalisation?
We clearly define what it is we are testing so that it can be measured in an objective way
How do you introduce an EWT essay?
EWT is a legal term referring to the use of eyewitnesses to give evidence in court concerning the identity of someone who has committed a crime. However, there is a debate over the reliability of this as when eyewitnesses are asked questions after the event, these questions may alter their perception.
Why is EWT not reliable?
(-) Some research has shown EWT to be unreliable. For example, Loftus and Palmer conducted a classic study into the interaction between language and memory. In the first study, the verb participants were exposed to after viewing the crash footage was changed. In the second, it was changed again and participants were asked whether they'd seen any broken glass, and results showed that subtle changes in language can alter memory. Therefore, EWT can be unreliable because memories can be distorted.
(-) The crimes witnessed are unexpected and emotionally traumatising. For example, Freud believed that the ego-defense mechanism of repression would be employed during emotionally distressing experiences, so they'd be pushed into the unconscious mind where they cannot be accessed. Therefore, EWT is unreliable because the memory of the crime is too traumatising to recall.
(-) Children as eyewitnesses are unreliable because they are prone to fantasy and are especially affected by suggestions made by others. For example, police line-ups do not always include the target individual. From a meta-analysis, Pozzulo and Lindsay found that children aged 5-13 are more likely to make a choice in target-absent lineups rather than saying that the offender was not there (more sensitive about doing what is asked by adults). Therefore, there is risk of psychological harm to children as they have to discuss/relive trauma (seeing the offender), and children have to have additional consent from parents as they're vulnerable.
Why is EWT reliable?
(+) EWT research may be flawed as it focuses often on details which are not central to the incident, so memory may be more susceptible to corruption. For example, Loftus showed participants pictures of a man stealing a large, bright red purse from a woman's bag, and after exposure to information containing subtle errors, most still remembered the colour of the purse despite being wrong about other things. This suggests key events are resistant to distortion from post-event information so EWT is accurate and reliable.
(+) Some psychologists believe that when we experience very emotionally shocking events, we create a particularly accurate and long-lasting memory (called flashbulb memory). This idea that emotion is linked with memory is supported by Cahill and McGaugh, who aimed to see if hormones associated with emotional arousal, e.g. adrenaline, affected memory. They found that rats injected with adrenaline before learning a task showed better recall. This suggests that emotion enhances the storage of memories, so EWT may be more reliable if the crime is emotional in nature, rather than less reliable.
(+) Some evidence suggests children are reliable eyewitnesses. E.g. Davies et al revealed that children aged 6 to 7 and 10 and 11 are fairly accurate when recalling events and do not make things up, nor do they deliberately lie when giving testimony. These conclusions challenge many of the claims made by other researchers showing children can be accurate eye-witnesses.
What are the cultural implications of EWT?
(-) The 'cross-race bias' is thought to impact the accuracy of facial recognition. This is the theory that we are able to identify individuals of the same race as ourselves in comparison to those of a different race, perhaps due to a lack of exposure to the less familiar race and our inability to encode its facial features. This is supported by research and backs the idea that EWT may be unreliable where eyewitnesses are of a different race than the suspected perpetrator.
What are the social implications of EWT?
(-) There may be negative social implications in becoming too sceptical of EWT. E.g. Greene reports that when mock juries were asked to make decisions based on the guilt or innocence of perpetrators based on EWT, some mentioned their knowledge of misidentification mistakes and so were more sceptical. Discounting EWTs is a negative social implication as they are a major source of information in any crime scene.
How would you conclude an EWT essay?
This essay has discussed that it is difficult for psychologists to prove whether EWT is or is not reliable. In my opinion, EWT research has been helpful because we have been able to develop methods where EWT is less susceptible to deception, e.g. cognitive interviews and sequential lineups, as well as increasing CCTV use.
How would you introduce a positive psychology essay?
The focus of positive psychology is to ensure that all people lead productive and fulfilling lives by improving their wellbeing. UK citizens are generally healthier and wealthier today than they have ever been historically, but despite this, the UK is only 76th in the world in terms of happiness. As a result, some argue that positive psychology is relevant as it can help to improve our wellbeing, but others disagree and say that it may bring more harm than good to society.
Why is positive psychology relevant?
(+) It can have significant benefits when embedded in schools, such as in a positive psychology curriculum (PPC). For example, Seligman et al randomly assigned students to a PPC class or a non-PPC class, and found that PPC students were more cooperative and had better social skills. They believe that by increasing skills e.g. wellbeing, the traditional goals of classroom learning will be enhanced, not harmed. Therefore, positive psychology can be very relevant in education.
(+) Positive psychologists have also studied ways of improving wellbeing in the workplace. For example, the 'flow' theory states that our experiences will be most positive when both our challenges and skills are high, and we will become absorbed in the activity. Researchers found that most people experience flow more than three times more often at work than during leisure, so if work is enjoyable, they may work more effectively and improve their own quality of life. Therefore, integrating positive psychology into the workplace has positive social implications.
(+) Positive psychology can be used to advise people on how to feel greater wellbeing in their home lives. For example, research suggests people can increase their quality of life by being more conscious of and more active in their use of leisure time, e.g. planning events. Online projects such as Action for Happiness also focus on helping people without mental illness improve their lives further. Therefore, the wide relevance of positive psychology is demonstrated.
Why isn't positive psychology relevant?
(-) There is a lack of empirical evidence for most positive psychology education programmes. E.g. Spence and Shortt argue that research tends to be small scale or based on short-term interventions. Additionally, schools have limited budgets so adding positive psychology to the curriculum may mean that original courses must be dropped, so students may leave school with fewer academic qualifications. Therefore, embracing positive psychology in education has drawbacks.
(-) The causal relationship between positive psychology and increased wellbeing at work may be undermined by the fact that working also increases a person's access to money. For example, Diener et al found a weak positive correlation between income and happiness. Therefore, it may be money rather than interventions of positive psychology that increase wellbeing.
(-) It is difficult to asses the impact that movements such as Action for Happiness have on UK society. For example, in order to conduct objective research, all confounding variables should be controlled to determine causal relationships. One case might be that only wealthier people are attracted to such movements, and therefore beneficial outcomes may be due to their wealth, not the programme. Therefore, positive psychology may not be that relevant in society for all socio-economic groups.
What are the cultural implications of positive psychology?
(-) Happiness is not the same all around the world. For example, Chinese people think less often about how happy and satisfying their lives are than Americans, and collectivist cultures pursue happiness in more socially engaging ways than individualistic cultures, where the focus is more on self-esteem. This highlights how although happiness is a universal concept, its meaning and our experiences are influenced by our cultures. Therefore, positive psychology may not be relevant to all cultures.
What are the social implications of positive psychology?
(+) Positive economic implications arise from positive psychology in the workplace. For example, there is evidence of high costs to businesses and the general economy due to unhappiness and stress. Staff sickness, being at work but being unproductive and staff turnover were estimated to cost the UK £26 billion per year as of 2008. Therefore, if workplace stress was reduced and happiness increased, this could save the UK economy billions of pounds, so positive psychology is useful.
How would you conclude a positive psychology essay?
This essay has discussed how positive psychology has stimulated research which helps improve wellbeing. In my opinion, not all positive psychology is beneficial as Norem found that too much positive thinking can in fact be negative, suggesting that defensive pessimists become less successful when encouraged to think positively. Therefore, it cannot fully be relevant as it does not benefit all.
What is an alternative/experimental hypothesis?
The hypothesis that predicts the effect of the IV on the DV
What is a hypothesis?
A testable statement or prediction of the outcome of the research. It predicts the interaction between IV and DV.
What is a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis?
Predicts the direction in which the results are expected to go e.g. listening to loud noise DECREASES the number of words recalled from a list of 20 words
What is a non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis?
Does not state a direction but simply states that one factor will affect another, e.g. listening to loud noise WILL AFFECT the number of words recalled from a list of 20 words.
What is a null hypothesis?
A null hypothesis is a statement of no affect e.g. listening to loud noise will have NO AFFECT on the number of words recalled from a list of 20 words.
What is quantitative data?
Numerical data (can be represented as frequencies or used in calculations)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative data?
(+) Can be analysed statistically - improves validity
(+) Objective - not open to interpretation, improves reliability
(-) Less detailed than qualitative data - worsens validity
(-) Difficult to analyse personal thoughts and feelings
What is qualitative data?
Non-numerical data (often in the form of descriptions of behaviour or events)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative data?
(+) In-depth data is gained (improves validity)
(+) Can gather data on thoughts and opinions easily
(-) Subjective - open to interpretation (worsens reliability)
(-) Difficult to analyse objectively (worsens reliability)
What is primary data?
Gathered first hand from source, directly by researchers (e.g. questionnaires, observations)
What is secondary data?
Data that has already been gathered by someone and is used by the researcher for further research (e.g. govt census, used in meta-analysis)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of primary data?
(+) More valid - study is carried out and carried out for the main purpose of the research
(+) More credible due to objective collection
(-) expensive as it needs to be collected
(-) potential for researcher bias
What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data?
(+) cheaper as info doesn't need to be collected
(+) less likely to contain researcher bias
(+) able to access difficult to reach groups of people
(-) data likely to have been gathered for an unclear purpose so may be less valid for this and may therefore lack credibility
(-) outdated - invalid conclusions as people change with time
What is a lab experiment?
Takes place in an artificial setting. The researcher manipulates the IV to see its effect on the DV whilst controlling other variables.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a lab experiment?
(+) can establish a causal relationship as extraneous variables are controlled, increasing internal validity
(-) low ecological validity as it's an artificial setting - behaviour may not be natural
What is a field experiment?
Takes place in a natural setting. The experimenter is able to manipulate the IV to see its effect on the DV but cannot control extraneous variables as much
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a field experiment?
(+) High ecological validity as the setting is not artificial so behaviours will be natural
(-) Lower validity as the DV may be impacted by extraneous variables
What is a natural experiment?
Takes place in a natural environment where the IV varies naturally and the DV is observed
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a natural experiment?
(+) Allows research to be conducted on topics that would be unethical to manipulate, e.g. maternal separation
(-) Causal relationships are impossible to establish as extraneous variables exist - low internal validity
What is a quasi-experiment?
Not a true experiment - the researcher is not able to allocate participants randomly to different conditions of the experiment because the IV is an aspect of the participants themselves, that cannot be defined e.g. gender
What are the advantages and disadvantages of a quasi-experiment?
(+) Often carried out under controlled conditions so extraneous variables are limited, raising internal validity
(-) Lower in validity than lab experiments as we cannot be certain the IV caused the change on the DV because allocation wasn't completely random
What is participant observation?
Where the observer joins a group and observes the behaviour of that group without manipulating variables
What are the advantages and disadvantages of participant observation?
(+) Natural behaviour as they're unaware of the observation, increasing ecological validity
(-) Observer bias may exist, reducing validity
What is non-participant observation?
Where the observer does not join the group but simply observes from the outside
What are the advantages and disadvantages of non-participant observation?
(+) Can more accurately observe and record behaviour, improving internal validity
(-) Observer bias may exist, rendering results invalid
What is event sampling?
Counting the number of times certain behaviours occur in a target individual or individuals
What are the advantages and disadvantages of event sampling?
(+) Content can be identified and categorised
(+) Uses an efficient behaviour checklist
(-) Limits the range of content
(-) Limits the level of detail/qualitative data gained
What is time sampling?
Includes recording all behaviour shown at a specific point in time
What are the advantages and disadvantages of time sampling?
(+) more detailed (qualitative) than event sampling
(+) lets a greater range of content be covered
(-) Content may be missed as it's only recorded at a given time
(-) More time consuming to analyse than event sampling
What is content analysis?
A method used to assess qualitative data or data from secondary sources e.g. newspaper articles
What are the advantages and disadvantages of content analysis?
(+) High ecological validity - observations made using real world sources which tell us about natural behaviour
(-) observer bias may exist, rendering results invalid
What's a questionnaire?
Consists of a written list of open and closed questions, gathering qualitative or quantitative data
What are the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires?
(+) Time and cost-effective, access to a large sample, easy to copy
(-) Response rates can be low
What is a structured interview?
A technique used to collect data where open and closed questions are asked of the interviewee, producing qualitative and quantitative data respectively
What are the advantages and disadvantages of structured interviews?
(+) easy to replicate (test for internal/external reliability)
(+) Not flexible - new questions cannot be asked on the spot
What are semi-structured interviews?
Contain general topic areas for discussion during the interview, and may include specific questions but are more open ended
What are the advantages and disadvantages of semi-structured interviews?
(+) generate qualitative data (let the respondent talk in some depth)
(-) interviewer bias may exist which renders results invalid
What are self-report methods?
Involve a participant reporting on their thoughts and feelings e.g. questionnaire, interview
What are the advantages and disadvantages of self-report methods?
(+) offer an insight as to why people behave the way they do
(-) high risk of social desirability bias
What are correlational studies?
Look at the relationship between two co-variables
What are the advantages and disadvantages of correlational studies?
(+) Useful for showing the strength of a relationship between two variables
(-) Do not show a causal relationship as extraneous variables may affect the correlation
What are case studies?
A detailed study of an individual, institution or event
What are the advantages and disadvantages of case studies?
(+) idiographic - researcher can gather rich qualitative data, increasing internal validity
(-) features retrospective evidence which can be distorted, lowering internal validity
what is a repeated measures design?
with the same participants take part in all conditions of the study
what are the advantages and disadvantages of repeated measures?
(+) eliminates individual differences (same participants in both conditions) so can establish a causal relationship
(-) Order effects may reduce the validity of the study E.g. boredom
what is an independent groups design?
Using different participants in different conditions of the study, so not matches in any way E.G.gender
what are the advantages and disadvantages of an independent groups design?
(+) no order effect as different participants are taking part in the conditions
(-) Groups have not been matched therefore individual differences may affect the outcome which lowers validity as we cannot establish a causal relationship
what is a matched pairs design?
using different participants in different conditions of the study matched in terms of age, gender and ethnicity
what are the advantages and disadvantages of a matched pairs design?
(+) Individual differences do not affect the outcome of a study improving validity and establishing a Causal relationship
(-) Time consuming
what's a lab environment?
Studies take place in controlled artificial conditions where extraneous variables are controlled
what are the advantages and disadvantages of a lab environment?
(+) Specialist equipment can be used, e.g. PET scans
(+) High control over extraneous variables increases validity
(+) Replication of conditions is more easily achieved
(-) Demand characteristics participants can show artificial behaviour as they are aware if they are in a study
(-) Some behaviours only seen in natural settings may not be replicated in the lab
(-) Low ecological validity
what is a field environment?
Studies take place outside of the lab in a more natural setting
what are the advantages and disadvantages of a field environment
(+) Ecological validity as behaviour is more natural (less Demand characteristics)
(+) can investigate behaviours which would be difficult to examine in lab
(-) lower control over extraneous variable such as temperature noise So lower internal validity
(-) More likely to have a lack of valid consent as participants may not be aware they are being studied
what is an online environment?
Research using online platforms
what are the advantages and disadvantages of online research?
(+) Can access a large group of participants so less risk of cultural bias as a worldwide sample can be reached
(+) Cost-effective as it's usually cheaper than physical Research materials
(-) Research methods may be more limited as experimental research is often more difficult to carry out Online
(-) Risk of false behaviour or answers where participants deliberately aim to damage the studies validity
what is a target population?
The entire group a researcher is interested in
what is a sampling frame?
A list of all those within the target population who can be practically sampled
what is a sample?
The group of people who take part in the investigation referred to as participants
what is random sampling?
Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected
what are the advantages and disadvantages of random sampling?
(+) No Researcher bias
(-) Accidental bias as the sample may be unrepresentative lowering external validity of the study
what is self-selected sampling?
A method of obtaining a sample that relies on volunteers (Participants come forward to take part in the study)
what are the advantages and disadvantages of self selected sampling?
(+) Time and cost-effective
(-) Volunteer bias can occur which makes the sample unrepresentative lowering external validity
what is opportunity sampling?
Selecting people who are available at the time of the study
what are the advantages and disadvantages of opportunity sampling?
(+) Time and cost-effective
(-) The sample is likely to be unrepresentative
what is quota sampling?
Selected according to the frequency in the population, Individuals are chosen to take part by the researcher
what are the advantages and disadvantages of quota sampling?
(+) Representative of the population improving external validity
(-) Can lead to researcher bias
what is stratified sampling?
Selected according to the frequency in the population, Chosen to take part randomly
what are the advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling?
(+) Representative of the population increasing external validity
(-) Time consuming and expensive
what is systematic sampling?
Selecting every nth person
what are the advantages and disadvantages of systematic sampling?
(+) No researcher bias
(-) Can be accidentally unrepresentative which lowers External validity
what is snowball sampling?
A small number of initial participants are recruited then Participants recruit further participants
what are the advantages and disadvantages of snowball Sampling?
(+) Can access difficult to reach groups of people
(-) Unlikely to be representative lowering external validity
what is the mean?
A measure of central tendency involving calculating the average
what are the advantages and disadvantages of using the mean?
(+) It's the most sensitive measure of data as it uses all values
(-) Can be affected by extreme results
what is the median?
A measure of central tendency involving placing all data lowest highest and identifying the middle number
what are the advantages and disadvantages of Using the median
(+) Not impacted by extreme scores
(-) Not sensitive as only the middle number is used
what is the mode?
A measure of central tendency involving identifying the most common value
what are the advantages and disadvantages of using mode?
(+) Useful when the data is in categories to show, which is most popular
(-) not useful when there are several modes
what is the range?
For the difference between the smallest and largest value
what are the advantages and disadvantages of the range?
(+) Quick and easy to calculate
(-) Can be distorted by extreme values
what is standard deviation?
How much scores differ from the mean
what are the advantages and disadvantages of using standard deviation?
(-) The most sensitive measure of dispersion, less extorted by extreme values
(+) can be very time-consuming to calculate
what is nominal data?
A level of measurement where data is in separate categories
what is ordinal data?
Measurements can be put in order from low to highest
what is interval data?
All numbers have equal distances between them and can be negative
what is ratio data?
All numbers have equal distances between them, but cannot be negative
what are line graphs?
Can be used to plot the relationship between two variables showing a change in a variable overtime
what are frequency tables?
The number of scores in a given category or condition - categorised data in tables, often in tallies or numbers
what are histograms?
A method of representing the frequencies of results when data is continuous
what are bar chart?
A method of representing the frequencies of results across different categories or conditions
what are pie charts?
Uses pie slices to show the relative sizes of different categories
what are scatter graphs?
Diagrams used to represent and compare two sets of data. we can see the correlation by looking at these
what is internal validity?
Whether the test is actually testing what intended - Can a causal relationship be established?
what is External validity
Whether the results from a study can be generalised to other people
what is ecological validity?
The extent to which the results of a study can be generalised from a set of environmental situations into real life environment
what are demand characteristics?
When participants guess the real aim of the study And change their behaviour
what is social desirability bias?
When participants give answers, they believe will be viewed positively by others
what is internal reliability?
How consistently a test measures the behaviour in the same way throughout, using standardised procedures
what is external reliability?
How consistently attest is measured over time when repeated on different occasions
what are standardised procedures?
Written set of procedures followed by an experimenter to ensure the experience of every participant is the same
what is confidentiality?
Ensuring all personal data is protected and anonymous so participants cannot be identified from the research
what is deception?
Participants are Not told important information about a study, or given misleading information
what are psychological and physical harm?
We must ensure this is not caused to participants as a result of the study. Psychological harm involve feeling embarrassed or fearful, physical Harm can involve being made to eat excessively
what are participants values, beliefs, relationship status or privacy?
A very broad ethical issue meaning that researcher must consider and judge the risk to participants in terms of damage to any of these
what is valid consent?
Explaining the purpose and aim of a study to participants and their role in the study so that they can make a decision about whether or not to participate
what should psychologist do when working with vulnerable individuals including children?
Ensure such participants are given an ample opportunity to understand the purpose nature and anticipated outcomes of the research so they can give their consent to the extent of their ability. Must also obtain informed consent from the parents or guardians of children under 16
what must psychologists do when working with animals?
only if the research is important enough, Reduce, replace and refine
Minimise the number of participating animals
Seek to replace animals with alternative such as AI
Refine procedures so the animal suffering is minimised
what are Ethics committees?
Available in all institutions and are in place to check research before it is undertaken - are guidelines being followed?
what are Pseudonyms
A false name used to identify participants
what are ethical guidelines?
A discussion of the overarching principles of ethical research produced by professionals E.G the British psychological society
what is debriefing?
A post research interview/discussion designed to inform participants of the true nature of a study and to restore them to the State they were in before the study
what was the variables in Kohlberg's study?
it wasn't an experiment, but IV and DV can be identified
IV = age
DV = moral development level
what was the sample in Kohlberg's study?
75 boys from Chicago USA (Androcentric, ethnocentric) Aged 10 to 16 years old at the start of the study
what were Kohlberg's procedures and methodology? (And their advantages and disadvantages)
semi structured interviews, longitudal method
(+) Generates qualitative data and helps researcher develop understanding
(-) Interviewer bias
What were the validity issues of Kohlberg's study?
(-) low ecological validity - the Heinz dilemma may not have reflected childhood moral decisions
(-) low external validity - andocentric and ethnocentric, also males' moral values are thought to be developed surrounding justice, females' caring
(-) social desirability bias - behaviours may have been changed due to the self-report method used, So findings only reflect idealistic moral thinking
What were the reliability issues in Kohlberg's study?
(+) high internal reliability - closed questions used which can be replicated easily
(-) Low external reliability - longitudal study so may not be replicable
What are the ethical issues with Kohlberg's study?
(-) low confidentiality - large amount of information obtained, innermost thoughts quoted directly in the article
(-) psychological harm - boys may feel embarrassed if they're found to be reasoning at a lower level than other children
(-) children are used so require parental Consent
what are the variables in a milgrams study?
it wasn't an experiment, but IV and DV can be identified
IV = behaviour of authority figure
DV = Maximum shock level given by the teacher to the learner before the teachers refusal
what was milgram's sample?
40 American Males (ethnocentric, Androcentric)
(-) Unrepresentative sample (ethnocentric, androcentric)
(+) Variety of ages, educational backgrounds and level of employment
what were milgrams procedures and methodology (and advantages and disadvantages?)
Controlled non-participant observation
(+) High levels of control over extraneous variables, Causal relationship
(+) Replication possible due to the use of standardised procedures
(-) Low ecological validity
what are the validity issues of milgrams study?
(-) Ecological - Some argue that results do not generalise to Nazi Germany
(-) Low internal validity - Some have argued that participants may not have believed they were giving real electric shocks (Demand characteristics)
(-) low External validity - Male sample so findings on obedience may not apply to female
what are the reliability issues of milgrams study?
(+) High external reliability - Standardised procedures were used so the study could be replicated
(+) High internal validity - The controlled location allowed for procedures to be standardised
what are the ethical issues of milgrams study?
(+) Debriefing - Post observation interviews/questionnaires were carried out
(+) Presumptive consent - Informed consent was not practical for milgram, so he asked for the views of Non-participants