Sociology 150 Final
What are the twin pillars of science?
Logic and Obseration
-> a scientific assertion must make sense and be supported by empirical observation
Research Methods (Methodology)
- A systematic process of inquiry applied to learning about the social world
- the goal of research methods is "to construct a defensible version of reality"
List the steps of the research process...
1. Specifiy the research question
2. Review the scientific literature
3. Propose a theory and state hypotheses
4. Select a research design
5. Collect the data
6. Analyze the data and draw conclusions
7. Disseminate the results
What is a quantitative method?
Results in datat that can be represented by and condensed into numbers
-> less depth, more breadth (focus on a larger number of cases)
-> survey research (most common quantitative method in sociology)
What is a quantitative method?
Ways of collecting data that yield results such as words or test
-> gain in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of cases
-> potential for greater richness in meaning than quantified data
How do quantitative and qualitative methods work together?
Researchers prefer one approach
-> complementary, not competing
What is basic research?
Researchers are motivated because they happen to be curious about a topic
-> goal of the reserach is to learn more about a topic and/or test a theoretical perspective or solve an intellectual puzzle
What is applied research?
Refers to sociology that is conducted for some purpose beyond or in addition to a researcher's interest in a topic
-> find solutions to problems or discover ways of living more effectively
-> might involve research for a client
-> evaluation research
What is selective observation?
Noticing only social patterns that one has experienced directly or wishes to find; confirmation bias (seek out or recall informatoin that supports one's existing views)
What is overgeneralization?
Assuming that broad social patterns exist based on very limited observation ("vibes")
What is a variable?
A characteristic or measure of a social phenomenon that can take different values
What is an independent variable?
A variable that causes another
What is a dependent variable?
A variable that is caused by another. Dependent variables "depend" on independent variables
What is a relational statement?
Connects two or more variables
What is a probabilistic relationship?
Two variables go together with some degree or level of regularily.
-> as the level of one variable increases, the level of another variable tends to increase
What does the scientific method do?
- Establishes parameters that help ensure that the findings are objective and accurate
- Provides boundaries that focus a study and organize the results
- Offers sociologists a shared basis for discussion and analysis
Empirical Evidence and the Scientific Method...
Sociologists use empirical evidence combined with the scientific method to deliver sound research
- deliberately use the scientific method to maintain as much objectivity, focus, and consistency as possible in a study
What is loneliness?
A subjective feeling state ofbeing alone, separated or apart from others, and has been conceptualized as an imbalance between desired social contacts and actual social contacts
Reviewing the Scientific Literature... why is this important?
-> helps us gain a broad understanding of research previously done on the topic and enables us to position our own reserach to build our prior knowledge ("knowledge is cumulative")
-> can help us sharpen the focus of our resarch question
What is a hypothesis?
An assumption about how two or more varaibles are related
-> it is an educated guess based on theory, observations, or prvious scientific discoveries
-> formulates this guess in the form of a testable proposition
What is a null hypothesis?
One that predicts no relationship between the variables being studied
What is a survey?
Used to collect data from study participants who respond to a series of questions about attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, and other variables
-> targets a population
-> survey a sample
-> depends on how generalizable the sample-based findings are to the broader population
What is operationalization?
Defining the steps it takes to objectively measure something
What is correlation?
When a change in one variable coincides with a change in another variable
-> they are only associated they do not cause eachother
What 4 criteira must be satisfied to suggest causation?
1. There must be a relationship or correlation between the indepenedent and dependent variables
2. the independent variable must be prior to the dependent variable
3. there must be no other variable that is responsible for producting a causal relationship
4. The possibility of reverse causality
What is the difference betwee a population and a sample?
Population: refers to a complete set of individuals, events, or objects of interest in a particular study
Sample: a subset of the populatin selected to represent the larger group (used to make inferences about the population)
Why would a representativeness sample be important in some types of research?
The use of a representative sample enhances the reliability, validity, and ethical integrity of research findings, ensuring that they are robust, actionable, and fair.
What is content analysis?
An approach that selects an item of textual content that can be observed and coded
What is an interview?
A one-on-one conversation between a researcher and subject
What is participant observation?
Immersion by a researcher in a group or social setting in order to make observations from an 'insider' perspective
Social patterns of sociologists...
- focus on levels of variables
- focus on associations between variables
- focus on the mechanisms that "explain" the associations between variables
What is the stress process model?
When a disruptive event occurs, individuals often struggle to reestablish homeostasis, and this process can be wearing and taxing
What is a longitudinal research design?
This type of research involves repeated observations or measurements of the same variables, with the same subjects, over an extended period.
What are computational methods?
New forms of digital data present enormous new opportunities for social research. These data include the fine-grained and time-stamped records of human behaviour and interactions online, massive troves of text and other “unstructured” data, and digitized documents and administrative records.
What does the term "unit of analysis" mean?
The major entity being analyzed in a study
-> Individuals
-> Groups (workplaces, teams)
-> Artifacts (books, newspapers)
-> Geographical Units (neighbourhoods, countries)
-> Social Interactions (divorces, arrests)
What is "response bias" in sociological inquiry?
Refers to people's tendency to provide inaccurate, or even false, answers to self-report questions
What is social desirability bias?
When sensitive questions are answered not with the truth, but with a response that conforms to societal norms
What is courtesy bias?
Respondent tendency to be polite toward researcher (especially in interviews)
What is acquiescence bias?
Respondent tendency to answer "yes" to the questions, regardless of their actual opinion
What is extreme responding?
Respondent tendency to choose only the highest or lowest response available; regardless of their actual opinion
What is question-order bias?
Risk of questions that appear earlier in a questionnaire affecting responses to subsequent questions. Earlier questions may shape how respondents interpret later questions
What is a status?
A position in a set of things that are rank-ordered by a standard of value. Status structures or hierarchies are rank-ordered relationships between individuals
-> status beliefs shape perceptions, interactions, and decision-making with higher status actors potentially perceived as more worthy, esteemed, valued, and competent
What is status characteristics theory?
Defines a status characteristic as a categorical distinction among people such as a personal attribute or role that has attached to it widely held beliefs in the culture that associate greater status worthiness and competence with one category of the distinction
What research method does Dokshin use in his paper?
Uses computational methods
What research method does Ye use in her paper?
Surveys
What are computational methods?
Methods of research that analyzes and models social phenomena using computer simulations, artificial intelligence, complex statistical methods, and analytical approaches like social network analysis