Psych exam!
clinical psychologist (what do they do?)
they work on mental disorders
counseling/psychologist (what do they do?)
they are a temporary solution to a situation, can be found in schools, or family therapists
biopsychologists (what do they do?)
psychological bases of behaviour
forensic psychologist (what do they do?)
Prison inmates, or research on eyewitnesses or juries
developmental psychologist (what do they do?)
How people change over time
1st level of analysis in psychology
social culture influence
social or behavioural level
relating to others and personal relationships
second level of analysis in psychology
psychological
mental or neurological level
involves thoughts, feelings, and emotions
the third level of analysis
biological
molecular or neurochemical
involves molecules and brain structure
the first main challenge in psych
human behavior is difficult to predict
actions are multiply determined
the second main challenge in psychology
psychological influences are rarely independent
the third main challenge of psychology
individual differences among people
the fourth main challenge in psychology
people influence one another
reciprocal determinism
the fifth main challenge of psychology
behavior is shaped by culture
emic vs. etic approaches
naturalistic observation
When you record the behaviors of your research subjects in real-world settings.
can draw cause- and- effect inference
case study
The use of a descriptive research approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person, group, or phenomenon
good for existence proofs
Self-Report Measures and Surveys
Any test, measure, or survey that relies on an individual's own report of their symptoms, behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes
easy to administer
correlational design
studies the relationship between variables without the researcher controlling or manipulating any of them
experimental design
Describes the way participants are allocated to experimental groups of an investigation.
external validity
findings that are generalizable to the real world
internal validity
ability to draw cause-and-effect inference
What type of design will we use if we want to increase external validity?
correlational design
What type would we use if we want to use internal validity?
experimental design
Phonology & phonemes
phonology: ability to recognize and manipulate the spoken parts of words, including syllables, onset-rime, and phonemes
phonemes: sound of language
Morphology & morphemes
morphology: study of words and their parts
morphemes: prefixes, suffixes, base words important for reading spelling, and comprehension
syntax
the set of rules to make sentences and the formation of phrases
word order, morphological markers, and sentence structure
Extralinguistic information
elements of communication
facial expressions, tone of voice, previous statements by others
helps interpret ambiguous information
When do the different aspects of language begin?
around 6 months they can recognize their own name
around 10 to 12 months they can comprehend other words
Pragmatic—begins at birth
joint attention
sharing interests
9-12 months
Phonology
babies practice sounds before they understand they represent
anything
begins in womb
newborns recognize Mom’s voice
Semantics
easier to acquire with early deprivation
Syntax: more sensitive to early deprivation – What case did we talk about in
the class that supports this argument?
we talked about "Genie" and how the trauma she endured, caused her to go non-verbal.
so she learned how to do sign language
the overall argument was that the younger you are, the easier it is to learn a new language. "less is more theory"
Motherese - Child-directed speech and its effect on children
short simple
4 month olds prefer it
may help simplify sounds into units
words paired with objects
expands children's speech
Describe Cattell and Horn’s theory of IQ
they theorized that "intelligence" is a mix of two capacities:
1. capacity to learn new ways of solving problems or fluid intelligence
2. accumulates knowledge or crystallized intelligence
List and briefly describe Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
different ways of thinking about the world
argued that autistic savants provided support for different types of IQ
however there is no good evidence that these intelligences are truly independent
List and briefly describe the 3 elements of the triarchic model of intelligence. Who is the originator of this model?
analytical (book smarts)
practical (street smarts)
creative (creativity)
Stemberg is the originator
believes that having one does not ensure that you have others
What has been found about brain size and intelligence in humans? What does this correlation mean?
they say that bigger brains predict higher intelligence
but there is a moderate correlation (0.3 and 0.4) between brain volume and intelligence
a third variable might be nutrition
they do also say that the cerebral cortex development is slower in gifted children
Describe 4 possible explanations for the Flynn effect
increased test sophistication
increased complexity of the modern world
better nutrition
changes at home and school
What has been found about sex differences in IQ?
females tend to do better on verbal tasks and recognizing emotions in others
males tend to do better on spatial ability tests, like mental rotation and geography
What are the advantages and disadvantages of cross-sectional design?
pro: good if you want quick cheap easy data collection
con: can't have a cause and effect relationship, or analyze behaviour over time
what are the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal design?
pros: can say something about this development and watch the vision change over time
cons: time consuming, expensive
How do theories of cognitive development differ? (3 differences)
stage-like vs gradual changes in understanding
domain-general vs domain-specific
principle source of learning
What is assimilation?
children use this to acquire knowledge within a stage
how kids perceive and adapt to new information
what is accommodation?
when a kid can no longer take in information, they are forced to look at it differently
Identify the three approaches to stress
stressor as stimuli
stress as a transaction
stress as a response
what is a stressor as a stimuli?
focuses on identifying types of stressful events
studies situations that cause more stress and the people that react strongly to that.
what is stress as a transaction?
examines how people interpret and cope with stressful events
primary and secondary estimation determines if a situation is harmful, and then if we can cope with it.
what is stress as a response?
assesses psychological and physical reactions to stress
can be lab-induced or real-world stressors
Identify Selye’s 3-stage response to stress
alarm reaction
resistance
exhaustion
define alarm reaction
automatic nervous system is activated, stress hormones released, physical symptoms of anxiety
HPA axis and fight or flight response
define resistance
you adapt and find ways to cope with the stressor
define exhaustion
in prolonged stressors, our resistance can break down
can cause physical or psychological damage
Describe the differences between Behavioural, Cognitive, and Emotional Control.
behavioral: how you act on your emotions
cognitive: informational control and proactive coping
emotional: being able to suppress and express emotions properly
According to Maddi, what is the one set of attitudes possessed by stress-resistant people?
control
commitment
challenge
describe the difference between alternative and complementary medicine
alternative: instead of conventional medicine
complementary: when products and practices are used with conventional medicine
describe the role of the placebo effect in complementary and alternative medicine.
CAM does not hold up
pain is highly responsive to placebo treatments, which may be the reason why CAM is so popular
Discuss the need to belong theory and the impact of social isolation on IQ and behavior
NTBT: biological need to be with and around people, and it hurts to be isolated or rejected
poor cognition and depression and anxiety
Describe social contagion and provide an example
mass hysteria: contagious outbreak of irrational behavior that spreads
windshield pitting: started to notice chips in their windows
What is the fundamental attribution error? What influences this effect? What are the cultural differences in this effect?
attributions are assigning causes to behavior
internal and external influences this
Japanese and Chinese
describe the Zimbardo (Stanford) prison experiment and how it relates to the phenomenon of deindividuation
a 2-week study of prison life where you were either a prisoner or guard. on the second day, the guards started punishing them.
had to stop on day 6 because the guards were becoming sadists and the prisoners became rebellious.
they engaged in atypical behavior because they were stripped of their identity
what are the 4 symptoms of groupthink?
have a persuasive leader
disconnect from the outside world (isolated)
discourage questioning of assumptions
gradually indoctrinate members (brainwashing)
what is a way to treat groupthink?
introducing reasons on why they might be right
debunking them
how can you resist indoctrination that leads to cults?
educate yourself
know what is right
why is obedience a double-edged sword?
it has both positive and negative outcomes depending on the situation or context
Describe Milgram’s studies on obedience. Describe two variables that influence the results.
Designed experiment to test the influence of obedience and authority on normal people
more morally advanced
level of authoritarianism
What is the bystander intervention phenomenon? What have researchers found influences whether someone will help a person in danger (2 reasons)?
when people see someone in need but fail to help them
pluralistic ignorance
diffusion of responsibility
What is altruism? What situational factors contribute to altruism? What individual differences are linked to altruism?
sometimes we help people because we care for them
when you can't escape the situation
characteristics of the victim
personality
List some situational factors that contribute to aggression. (eg., interpersonal provocation, etc). What are some individual differences linked to aggression (eg., impulsivity).
media, interpersonal provocation, frustration
personality traits, males, cultural
What is an attitude and how does it relate to behavior?
an attitude is a belief that includes emotions
they are highly accessible
firmly held and stable over time
What is cognitive dissonance? How can one reduce this state?
an unpleasant state of tension between two opposing thoughts
change attitude a, b, or add a third variable
Describe the $1 boring experiment – what role did cognitive dissonance play in this experiment? (Festinger &Carlsmith)
they studied being stubborn in behavioral change
people who were paid 1 dollar to lie were more stubborn than the ones who got 20 dollars
What are the two routes used to persuade others (central & peripheral)
central uses facts and information
peripheral uses beauty, fame, and positive emotions
describe foot-in-the-door
starts with a small request and moves to a larger one
describe door-in-the-face
starts big then "backs off"
describe low-ball technique
starts with a low price, then once they accept it, up the price
What is a stereotype?
a quick way to judge someone (good or bad)
How do stereotypes differ from prejudice?
prejudice: drawing negative conclusions before seeing the evidence whereas stereotypes are good or bad
how are prejudice and stereotypes the same?
prejudice is cultivated by stereotypes
both can lead to negative situations
What are some common gender stereotypes?
girls like pink and dolls
boys like blue and trucks
What is the relationship between prejudice and discrimination?
prejudice can lead to treating someone poorly
Describe the scapegoat hypothesis
comes from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes
describe the just-world hypothesis
says that we have a need to see the world as fair, even if its not
describe conformity
its when you go along with others' opinions
What is the difference between implicit and explicit prejudice?
implicit= unaware
explicit= aware
What are ideal conditions for reducing prejudice?
work together as one big group rather than split up
contact should be enjoyable
equality
potential to become friends
groups should defeat negative stereotypes first
describe the first trait of the Big Five model (openness to experience)
intellectually curious, unconventional, open-minded
describe the second trait of the Big Five model (conscientiousness)
careful and responsible
describe the third trait of the Big Five model (extraversion)
social and lively, makes friends easily, confident
describe the fourth trait of the Big Five model (agreeable)
easy to get along with, not fussy, a lot of friends
describe the fifth trait of the Big Five model (neuroticism)
tense and moody
Discuss whether we can use the big five to predict behavior. Provide an example.(Under title The Big Five and Behaviour)
predicts many real-world behaviors like:
job performance and grades in school
physical health and lifespan
Can personality traits change? Provide 2 examples
Mischel's argument "Psychology of the Stranger" says that:
traits are a cluster, not isolated behaviors
they mainly describe individual differences rather than what causes them
factor analysis
the way we can find any underlying variables that play a role
Lexical approach
the idea that the most important differences between people will be encoded in the language that we use to describe people
List and describe the 4 criteria that psychologists use to decide whether someone has a mental disorder.
distinguishes diagnosis from others
predicts performance
predicts family history
predicts natural history
What is a culture-bound syndrome?
a diagnosis across cultures
koro: your genitals are shrinking and receding into your abdomen
amok: episodes of intense sadness and brooding, followed by uncontrolled behaviour and violence
pigeonholing (1st misconception about diagnosis)
all people with that diagnosis are alike in at least one aspect
People differ dramatically in other psychological difficulties, race, cultural background, personality, interests, and cognitive skills.
unreliability (2nd misconception about diagnosis)
Major mental disorders typically have high interrater reliability, similar to medical disorders. Although, some personality disorders have lower reliabilities
invalid (3rd misconception about diagnosis)
probably true in some 'disorders' in the popular media
there is a criteria
stigmatism (4th misconception about diagnosis)
Rosenhan's Asylum Study: An experiment conducted to determine the validity of psychiatric diagnosis.
Participants submitted themselves for evaluation at various psychiatric institutions and made up hallucinations to be accepted, but acted normally from then onward
What are the 5 criteria proposed by Robins and Guze to determine whether a psychiatric diagnosis is valid?
clinical description, laboratory study, exclusion of other disorders, follow-up study, and family study.