approaches
wilhelm wundt
pioneer, Father of experimental psychology, Used the controlled empirical scientific research techniques to study the mind, Trained 186 students
wundts approach
structuralism
The process of breaking down the hidden structure of the mind into definable components- thoughts, images, sensations
introspection
The conscious examination of conscious experience (The self observation of your own thoughts)
means 'looking into' and is the process of a person examining their inner world by consciously observing their thoughts and emotions
introspection ao3
strength: very scientific because of the controlled experiments, large sample sizes and transparent methods he used - Allowed him to develop general theories of mental processes and inspiration for others
limitation: considered Subjective and not classified as truly scientific because he wasn't studying observable behaviour. There is no way of independently verifying what participants said was going on in their thoughts, Inferences can only be made
Sigmund Freud psychodynamic
propose that early childhood experiences can reside in our unconscious mind and greatly influence our adult lives
unconscious biological drivers and desires influence our conscious mind and our behaviour
The structure of personality Psychodynamic
id
Ego
Superego
The role of the unconscious Psychodynamic
Drives motivates and is the force behind our behaviour and personality
Protect the conscious mind from fear and anxiety, Act as a defence mechanism
Contains our biological instincts and drives
id psychodynamic
Entirely conscious
Focuses on the self
Governed by the pleasure principle
Consists of primal urges, Seeks nothing but pleasure and instant gratification
Formed from birth-18 months
ego psychodynamic
Conscious
Governed by the reality principle
Aims to reduce the conflict between two opposing forces
Arises in response To interactions with the world and control by others
Formed at around 2 years old
Superego Psychodynamic
unconscious, but can influence conscious thoughts
Governed by the morality principle
Acts as the conscience, (inner voice) Moral guide
Internal parent
Formed around 4/5 Years old
defence mechanisms
Provide compromise solutions to deal with unsolvable conflict
repression
Denial
Displacement
repression
When a traumatically distressing memories is forced out of the conscious awareness and into the unconscious mind
Continues to influence behaviour without the individual being consciously aware of it
denial
A refusal to accept the truth or reality of a situation acting as though nothing distressing happened
displacement
feelings towards a target individual cannot be expressed directly and therefore a transferred onto someone else
psychosexual stages of development
At each stage, there is a conflict that needs to be resolved
If a child fails to resolve the conflict, they may develop a fixation that resides in their unconscious mind, Affecting an adult personality
Oral anal phallic Latent genital
oral
age 0-2
Conflict- pleasure and satisfaction mainly because of feeding/weaning
Breasts being the focus of desire
Conflict to be resolved, relates to weaning
fixation- Sucking thumb, biting nails
anal
Age 2-3
Conflict- directed towards bladder and bowels
Focus of pleasure comes from controlling bladder and bowel movement
Conflict to be resolved, relates to toilet training
Fixation-
anal retentive: obsessive perfectionist
anal explusive: messy and thoughtless
phallic
Age 3-5
Conflict- Directed towards genitals
Oedipus complex- Boys must overcome their unconscious sexual desire for their mother
electra complex- same ^ (girls)
Fixation- Boys look for a mother figure and girls look for a father figure
latent
age 5-puberty
conflict- Libido energy is calm, dormant and not active
Individual can focus on world around them informed friendships
Fixation- If conflict is unresolved, it can lead to immaturity
genital
age puberty+ into adult life
Conflict- The formation of adult relationships and sexual interest in the opposite sex
Fixation- Might struggle to form heterosexual relationships
psychodynamic strengths
Real world application- It's practical application into therapy, Much of what was behind many forms of mental illnesses which traumatic experience from the past that I've been repressed into their unconscious mind
Psychodynamic approaches made significant contribution to our understanding of human behaviour towards psychotherapy
Foundation for future Theories- the focus freud placed On our early childhood experiences and relationships can influence and shape who we become and how we act in the future
psychodynamic limitations
case studies- Case study research is limited and its ability to make universal laws about human behaviour, Findings from research of very difficult to generalise to other people
Cultural bias- All of Freud's patients came from the Viennese middle class, Evidence to suggest that it is only suitable for cultures where discussion of personal problems is encouraged
behaviourist approach
One of the most influential approaches in modern psychology
Behaviour shaped through learning and experience from the environment
animal and human behaviour is comparable
psychologists should only study observable, measureable and objective behaviour
classical conditioning
pavlovs dog
Behaviour through association
when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together, they become associated with one another
generalisation- Conditioned stimulus (bell) Could be generalised to other sounds
Discrimination- Sound becomes too different that no salvation occurs
Extinction- Gradual weakening of a conditioned response
Spontaneous recovery- Sudden display of behaviour that was thought to be extinct
operant conditioning
positive reinforcement- When a behaviour is followed by a desirable consequence (reward) And he's more likely to be repeated
Negative reinforcement- When a behaviour is followed by the removal of an adverse consequence and is more likely to be repeated, Avoid something unpleasant
Punishment- Consequence that decreases the likelihood of a particular behaviour being repeated
skinner
Positive- Animal pressed lever, Rewarded with food
Negative- rat pressed lever to avoid electric shock
behaviourist strengths
Highly scientific research methodology- Highly controlled laboratory settings, Possible extraneous variables are removed, Cause an affect relationship relationships can be established
influential- Encouraged research that focused on more objective dimensions of behaviour, Lead to increasingly valid and reliable understanding of human behaviour
behaviourist limitations
Use of animals- Unethical as there is less concern about protection from harm for non-human subjects
Findings from animal experiments are not generalisable to human behaviour
maslows hierarchy of needs (1943)
self-actualisation- acceptance, inner potential
self-esteem- confidence, achievement
love+belonging- friendships + family
safety+security- havinf a home, good healrh
psychological needs- food, water
self-actualisation
the innate desire to achieve of fulfil ones full potential
it is where people experience purpose and meaning in life
someone who is self-actualised does not focus on themselves or on how other people percieve them
self-transcendence
the need to connect to something beyond and higher than ourselves
the self-concept
carl rogers
self-image - how your see yourself right now
ideal self- who you want to be or feel you should be
self-esteen- how much you like and accept who you are
congruence
when there is an overalp agreement between an individuals self-image and ideal self
self actualisation is most likely to be acheieved when there is congruence between them
developing congruence
1. the need for unconditional positive regard from other people
2. the need for self-worth
incongruence
where the self-image and ideal self do not overlap, dont match and arent in agreement
unhappiness is the outcome of a psychological gap between ideal self and self-image
influence of counselling psychology
to reduce incongruence, it requires deep reflection on how you see yourself as well as your own motivations
1. increase the persons feelings of self-worth
2. reduce the level of incongruence between the self-image and ideal self
3. help the person become a more fully functioning person
humanistic strengths
depth of insight- qualitative research methods- case studies, open-ended questionnaires, structured interviews
give a more valid insight into the richness of human behaviour than typical laboratory-based experiments
real world application- maslows hierarchy of needs helped inform businesses with their understanding of the needs of their employees to make them be more successful and effective
humanistic limitations
culturally bias- concepts of self-actualisation and self-esteem are a product of western society and cant be applied to all cultures
unscientific- many of the ideas and concepts are subjective and difficult to test, self-actualisation and congruence are rather vague and difficult to define which makes it untestable in any scientific way
social learning theory definition
behaviour is learned from experience observation and imitation of others
recognises the importance of mediational and cognitive processes, through modelling and having a role model
role model + modelling
the person someone identifies with
the process of imitating
identification
involves assoiciating with the qualities, characteristics and views of role models
vicarious reinforcement
reinforcement which is not directly experienced by us but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced or punished for a behaviour
4 mediational processes
1. attention- observed behaviours
2. retention- remembered
3. motor reproduction- ability to perform
4. motivation- will to perform
if behaviour is rewarded, imitation us more likely
bobo doll experiement
bandura (1961)
investigate whether aggression can be learned
matched pairs design
72 children
aggressive model- child played while asult hit doll (24)
non-aggressive model- child played while adult didnt hit doll (24)
control group- child didnt see model (24)
bobo doll results+conclusions
childeen demonstrated same aggressive acts as adults
boys identified with males
girls physical- males
girls verbal- females
aggressive behaviour can be learned through observation and imitation of a role model
slt strengths
highly scientific research methodology- high controlled labroatory setting, high control of extraneous variables, enables cause and effect relationship to be established
more than 1 observer- reliability can be checked with inter-observer reliability, level of agreeableness in banduras study was +0.89 -> strong positive correlation, results are meaningful
slt limitations
methodological issues- method critisised, use of experimental laboratory method- articificial and contrived, possibility of deman characteristics, lowers internal validity
nature vs nurture- nurture-view focused, fails to consider the inportance of biological factors in human behaviour
how behaviour is lesrned through observation of role models
p & h difference
The humanistic approach assumes people have a free choice over their behaviour And are capable of change, Whereas the psychodynamic approach assumes that behaviour is determined by unconscious factors and early childhood experiences
psychodynamic is mostly Nature, Behaviour is the product of innate drives but shaped by early childhood experience. Humanistic is mostly nurture, Behaviour is shaped by the environment as human strive to achieve self actualisation
p & h similarities
both are much less scientific than other approaches, Psychodynamic relies on subjective interpretation, Humanistic rejects scientific methods and is unable to provide empirical evidence
Rogers believed that counselling can be used to help client solve their problems, Overcome conditions of work and enable their potential for self actualisation, Whereas Freud believed that psychoanalysis can lead to improve improvements in clients through psychotherapy
b & slt differences
in operant conditioning processes are direct whereas in social learning they are vicarious and indirect and a can occur through observation and imitation
Operant conditioning assumes that all behaviour is environmentally determined by external influences that we are unable to control (Environmental determinism), Social learning assumes that as well as being influenced by our environment cognitive factors can mediate learning and that we exert some influence upon it through the behaviour as we choose to perform (Reciprocal determinism)
b & slt similarities
both assume that all aspects of behaviour can be investigated scientifically and use laboratory experiments taking into account mediational processes
both assume that human development is a consequence of nurture both suggest that behaviour is a result of learnt associations and reinforcement
the genetic basis of behaviour
twin studies are used to investigate whether a certain psychological characteristics have a genetic basis
Concordance rates
mz twins-100% shared genes
dz twins-50% shared genes
genotype-The particular set of genes that a person possesses
phenotype-Physical expression of their genotype
The influence of biological structures
Localisation of function-Theory, the specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions
Occipital lobe-visual perception
Parietal lobe-Processing of sensory information
Frontal lobe-Personality characteristics and decision-making
Motor area-controls movement
Somatosensory area-Processes information from senses
Visual area-Processes information
Auditory area-Analysis of speech
The influence of neuro chemistry
Mind and Brain are the same so chemical processes that are going on in the brain are behind what is going on in the mind - Neurotransmitters influence our mental state
imbalances in the number of neurotransmitters are associated with atypical behaviour
E.g. abnormally low levels of serotonin is linked to aggressive behaviour
strengths of biological approach
Highly scientific research methodology-Often uses advances in technology is reliable methods of research, Requires precise and objective scientific methodology such as FMRI, Allow causing affect relationship to be established
Real world application-Increased understanding of neurochemical processes e.g. promotes the treatment of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs, Allows people to manage their condition better and live a normal life
limitations of the biological approach
Use of animals-Problematic and ethical issues, Humans and more complex and different show is limited because of difficulty in generalising
Nature versus nature-Behaviour is determined by innate features including genes and neurotransmitters, Fails to consider the importance of environmental factors because it overemphasises the nature side of the debate
cognitive approach
Argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
Focuses on the examination of internal mental processes
Since the processes are internal, private and cannot be study directly their operation must be inferred from the observation and measurement of visible behaviour
to assess inference cognitive psychologist make use of
Theoretical models to enable the visual representation of complex cognitive processes
Computer models to provide a basis for research
The stroop effect
Suggests that our minds want to understand words first and this makes sense given the education that we have had very early on in life
The use of computer models
The process of using computer analogies as a representative of human thinking
Allow mental processes to be thought of in terms of: Inputting information, Processing information, Storing information, Retrieving information (ipsr)
The use of the theoretical methods
They are visual representations of internal mental processes, Used to help research a simplify and study complex processes, They are abstract, They try to explain the way our mental processes work
Allow psychologist to provide testable theories about mental processes and these can be studied scientifically
The role of schema
Mental framework of information that we used to organise past experiences and to interpret and respond to incoming information
schema
They are developed through experiences
Becoming increasingly sophisticated
Enable us to deal with complex situations, Provide information quickly, Provide mental shortcut, Help us predict what will happen
The emergency of cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
paul broca Identified how damaged to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently impaired speech production
This field has resulted from the development of techniques for scanning the living brain. Wallace is actively processing information
cognitive strengths
Highly scientific research methodology: Uses objective scientific methods, Highly controlled and vigourous methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes, Use of laboratory studies
Range of methodologies- laboratory studies: Priest for its use of laboratory experiments, High degree of control over extreme variables allowing causing affect relationships, Allows for standardisation of procedures
artificial tasks
Artificial tasks: Relies on the inference of mental processes which can suffer from being too abstract and theoretical in nature, Lacks mundane realism and limits the extent to which findings can be generalised
Case studies: Findings may not be applied to the wider population and therefore more difficult to generalise