PSYCH 333: Infancy & Toddlerhood
What is Piaget's cognitive development theory?
Children actively learn as they experience the world to eventually meet maturation.
Piaget's stage of cognitive development (0-2 years old):
Sensorimotor
2 aspects of sensorimotor stage:
- Manipulating objects
- Development of language
Describe the primary circular reactions.
Baby will explore using their body (like playing with their feet and noticing that they have toes).
Describe secondary circular reactions.
Engaging with objects in their environment (like playing with a squishy ball or hitting a drum).
Describe tertiary circular reactions.
Baby will explore objects' properties and impacts of their actions (like throwing food off the table).
What is deferred imitation?
At around 9 months, baby is able to imitate someone when they are not presently in the room.
Define Means-ends behaviour:
Capacity for child to solve a problem using a different method than before. Ex.: usually pushing the door will open it, but it doesn't work. Child will then discover that turning the knob will also open the door.
What is another word for "out of sight, out of mind?"
Object permanence
Describe the A-not-B error.
A child less than 2 years old will think that an object is still in the A position, even though they saw it move from A to B.
Name one criticism of Piaget's social development theory.
Cognitive changes in infants are continuous rather than happening in abrupt stages (discontinuous).
At how many months old can a child recall memory from a few days ago?
About 9 months
At how many months old can a child group information into categories?
7-9 months old
When can a child differentiate between numbers (quantities)?
About 5 months old
When does language begin to develop?
At around 9 months old (generally)
What does Vygotsky's social development theory emphasize?
Sociocultural influences on cognitive development, and language.
What does the tiger opening a box experiment represent?
Social cognition/innate moral standards
Three aspects of joint attention:
- Eye contact
- Intentional joint attention
- Pointing
Chomsky's Nativist theory:
Innate ability to develop language.
Skinner's view on language:
Language is developed through reinforcement.
Stages of language (4):
- Cooing (2-4 mos)
- Babbling (6-11 mos)
- Holophrases (12 mos): one word sentences
- Telegraphic speech (18-2 years): two word combinations
Primary tast in Erikson's psychosocial stage of development:
Trust vs. Mistrust
Define attachment.
General feeling of love and bond between caregiver and child.
What do Watson and Skinner's opinions on attachment have in common?
They both agree that too much attachment is bad for the child.
What does Lorenz's research with gooselings say about attachment?
Children and/or animals are biologically programmed to attach themselves to a caregiver. (innate response)
What was the result of Harlow's experiment with monkeys?
The monkeys relied on the non-warm mother for food, but went to the cozy mother for comfort. --> innate capacity for attachment
Explain Winnicott's idea of the "good enough" parent.
Being a perfect parent is nearly impossible therefore what is most important is the 'holding environment' in which the child is raised in. This includes the way the parent will play with their child, how they are held, comforted....
Bowlby summarizes the research of Winnicott, Harlow, and Lorenz to come to this conclusion:
A primary attachment figure is crucial to healthy development.
If children are hospitalized after birth, what should the caregiver do to ensure helalthy primary attachment?
Visit the child in the hospital frequently.
2 aspects of Bowlby's evolutionary-based theory:
- Critical period in the 1st year of life
- Proximity-seeking behaviour: child must know that caregiver is there for them in case of emergency
How many phases are there in the attachment theory?
4
First phase:
Pre-attachment. 0-6 weeks, no concrete attachment to caregiver. Presence of social smile.
Second phase:
Attachment in the making phase. Beginning to show attachment to primary caregiver. 6 weeks- 6-8mos
Third phase:
Clear-cut attachment. 6-8mos to 18 mos-2 years. Child must be in close proximity to caregiver. Stranger anxiety begins
Fourth phase:
Formation of reciprocal relationship (2 years+). Language and communication, negotiation....
Types of attachment (4):
- Secure
- Avoidant
- Resistant
- Disorganized
Describe secure attachment.
- 70% of children
- Loving and supportive caregiver
- When parent leaves the room, child is upset and is consoled when parent returns
Describe avoidant attachment.
- Caregiver rejects or doesn't show much support for child
- Child is indifferent when the parent leaves and might play with another adult in the room. Child remains indifferent when parent returns
Describe resistant attachment.
- Inconsistent parenting style will lead the child confused
- In distress when parent leaves and will remain in distress when they return
Describe disorganized attachment
- Child may fear caregiver if they witnessed them being aggressive to someone else
- Inconsistent emotions when parent leaves the room
- When parent returns, child might resist, cry, or freeze
Who conducted the "strange situation" test?
Mary Ainsworth
What is the caregiver-sensititvity-hypothesis?
The way in which the parent responds to the child's behaviour will be the foundation of the secure attachment style.
Define temperament.
The inborn style of dealing with the world.
3 basic emotions in toddlerhood:
Happiness, anger and sadness, fear.
How is fear typically shown?
Through stranger anxiety
Describe social-referencing.
Social-referencing occurs when a child looks to the caregiver to decide their emotion or opinion for them. Ex.: trying a new food and looking to parent to decide that was 'good' or 'bad'
Name two indicators that a 2 year-old is beginning to have a sense of self.
- Emotional regulation
- Self-conscious emotions
Erikson's psychosocial task in toddlerhood (1-2 years old):
Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt
Name three ways to support a toddler during the psychosocial stage of shame and doubt.
- Encourage language development
- Reinforce good behaviour
- Increase rules gradually
Define socialization.
Socialization is the process in which a child is taught to obey the norms of society.
How to socialize a shy toddler:
- Expose them to new things
- Do not avoid daycare
- Be responsive
How to socialize a high energy toddler:
- Positive guidance
- Arrange for environment to be well-suited for child's temperament