CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY (COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY)
is the study of how PEOPLE PERCEIVE, LEARN, REMEMBER, and
THINK about INFORMATION.
Cognitive Psychology
study how people PERCEIVE VARIOUS SHAPES, why they REMEMBER some FACTS but FORGET OTHERS, or how they LEARN LANGUAGE.
Cognitive Psychologist
are MENTAL SHORTCUTS we USE to PROCESS INFORMATION.
Ex: when you buy a toothpaste sometimes you always say colgate which is a brand of toothpaste or pampers is a brand of diaper
Heuristics
heuristics
is a developmental process whereby KNOWLEDGE that TRANSFORM or EVOLVE IDEAS OVER TIME through a back-and-forth exchange of ideas; in a way, it is like a discussion spread out over an extended period of time.
Dialectic
Definition: A STATEMENT of BELIEF.
Example: Human nature (genes) influences aspects like intelligence or personality (Sternberg, 1999).
Key Point: Represents ONE SIDE of an argument.
Thesis
Definition: A COUNTERSTATEMENT to the thesis.
Example: Environment (nurture) determines human behavior.
Key Point: Challenges the thesis
Antithesis
Definition: INTEGRATION of THESIS and ANTITHESIS.
Example: Interaction between nature (innate) and nurture (environment) shapes human behavior.
Key Point: Combines the strengths of both thesis and antithesis for a more comprehensive understanding.
Synthesis
Historians trace its roots to TWO main approaches to UNDERSTANDING the HUMAN MIND, what are those?
Philosophy and Physiology
philosophy and physiology
Physiology and Philosophy
• Seeks to UNDERSTAND the NATURE of the world.
• Uses introspection (examining inner ideas and experiences).
Philosophy
• Focuses on the scientific study of LIFE-SUSTAINING FUNCTIONS.
• Relies on EMPIRICAL (observation-based) methods.
Physiology
The COLLECTION of MENTAL PROCESSES and ACTIVITIES used in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, and understanding, and the act of using those processes (Ashcraft, 2002)
Cognition
Focus: Perception starts with the SENSORY INPUT. Creating information coming directly what you have seen or experiencing
Process: Information comes directly from what we see or experience.
Example: When you see a new object, you first notice its colors, shapes, and details. Based on this, you recognize what it is.
Bottom-Up Processing
Focus: Perception is guided by prior KNOWLEDGE or experience.
Process: Your brain uses what you already know to interpret and understand sensory information.
Example: When reading messy handwriting, you can still understand the words because you know the language.
Top-Down Processing
According to the _________, the only route to truth is
REASONED CONTEMPLATION
Rationalist
according to the ________, the only route to truth is METICULOUS OBSERVATION.
Empiricist
A rationalists believes that the ROUTE to KNOWLEDGE IS THROUGH
THINKING and LOGICAL analysis. That is, a rationalist does not need any experiments to
develop new knowledge. A rationalist who is interested in cognitive processes would
appeal to reason as a source of KNOWLEDGE or JUSTIFICATION.
Plato
PLATO
An EMPRICIST believes that we ACQUIRE knowledge via EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE that is, we obtain evidence through EXPERIENCE and OBSERVATION
Aristotle
ARISTOTLE
Nature of Reality:
- Reality is found in the CONCRETE WORLD of OBJECT that can be SENSED.
How to Investigate Reality:
- KNOWLEDGE is gained through EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE, which comes from experience and observation.
- OBSERVATION of the EXTERNAL WORLD are essential for discovering truth.
ARISTOTLE - EMPIRICISM
• "COGITO ERGO SUM"(I think, therefore I am): This phrase emphasizes the IMPORTANCE of DOUBT and REASONING in establishing EXISTENCE and KNOWLEDGE.
• Mental Representations: He explored how thoughts and ideas represent the world.
RENE DESCARTES - RATIONALISM
• He addressed nearly ALL SIGNIFICANT issues concerning the FOUNDATIONS of the SCIENCE of the MIND.
• He drew principles from his works in various fields (meteors, optics, mathematics, and mechanics) and examined their relevance to human experiences.
• INNATE IDEAS: He proposed that certain IDEAS are INHERENT IN THE HUMAN MIND, rather than acquired through experience alone.
RENE DESCARTES - RATIONALISM
• "TABULA RASA"** (BLANK SLATE): He proposed that INDIVIDUALS are BORN WITHOUT INNATE IDEAS or knowledge, and that all KNOWLEDGE COMES FROM EXPERIENCE.
• Learning: Both sighted and blind individuals can learn the meanings of words through their experiences.However, blind individuals may struggle to acquire words related to visual experiences, such as "picture" and "see"
JOHN LOCKE - EMPIRICISM
Significance: He emphasized that humans are BORN WITHOUT KNOWLEDGE and that all understanding is derived from SENSORY EXPERIENCES
JOHN LOCKE - EMPIRICISM
seeks to understand the STRUCTURE (configuration of elements) of the MIND and its PERCEPTIONS by analyzing those perceptions into their CONSTITUENT COMPONENTS (affection, attention, memory,
and sensation).
Example: When seeing a flower, they would focus on its colors, shapes, and size to understand the perception.
Structuralism
• A GERMAN psychologist whose ideas contributed
to the DEVELOPMENT of STRUCTURALISM.
• He is often viewed as the
FOUNDER of STRUCTURALISM in psychology
Wilhelm Wundt
WILHELM WUNDT used a variety of METHODS in his research about STRUCTURALISM. One of these methods was:
Introspection
is the CONSCIOUS OBSERVATION of one’s own thinking processes. The aim of this is to look at the elementary components of an object or process.
Introspection
A STUDENT of WILHELM WUNDT who further developed and popularized STRUCTURALISM in the United States.
Edward Titchener
Goal of Psychology
• seeks to UNDERSTAND what people DO AND WHY THEY DO IT.
• To study the PROCESSES of the MIND rather than its contents, focusing on HOW MENTAL PROCESSES FUNCTION in ADAPTING to the ENVIRONMENT.
Method: Utilizes various methods, including:
• INTROSPECTION: Self-examination of thoughts and feelings.
• OBSERVATION: Watching behavior in natural settings.
• Experiment: Conducting controlled experiments to understand mental processes.
Functionalism
A key figure in FUNCTIONALISM, known for his influential work, "PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY" published in 1890.
William James
• They believe that KNOWLEDGE IS VALIDATED BY ITS USEFULNESS: What can you do with it?
• are concerned not only with knowing what people do; they also want to know what we can do with our knowledge of what people do
Example: Understanding how we learn and remember helps improve kids' school performance and helps us remember names of people we meet
Pragmatists
• focuses only on the RELATION BETWEEN OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOr and ENVIRONMENTAL EVENTS or stimuli.
• QUANTITATIVE analysis
• Relations between observable
behavior and environmental events/stimuli
Behaviorism
• To study OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR
• evolved from associationism, which studied how ideas and behaviors are connected through experiences.
• Method: ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS and CONDITIONING EXPERIMENTS
Behaviorism
A Russian physiologist who studied INVOLUNTARY LEARNING BEHAVIOR, demonstrating CLASSICAL CONDITIONING. He observed dogs salivating at the sight of a lab technician, showing that a conditioned stimulus(technician) could elicit a response(salivation) through association with an unconditioned stimulus(food).
Ivan Pavlov
Just OBSERVING WITHOUT DOING ANYTHING, a CONDITIONED RESPONSE DEVELOPS, which is a NATURAL, ELICITED RESPONSE.
Classical conditioning
Who is known as the "FATHER" of RADICAL BEHAVIORISM, emphasizing OBSERVABLE BEHAVIOR over INTERNAL THOUGHTS and shifting research from HUMANS TO ANIMALS?
John Watsons
Who is the radical behaviorist known for emphasizing OPERANT CONDITIONING and EXPLAINING HUMAN BEHAVIOR through ENVIRONMENTAL REACTIONS?
B.F. Skinner
• To understand PSYCHOLOGICAL PHENOMENA as ORGANIZED, STRUCTURED WHOLES
• Means PATTERN or CONFIGURATION
• TOTALITY of WHOLENESS
• example: abstract painting, architecture, fashion
• method: experimentation , observation
Gestalt Psychology
Example: In abstract painting, viewers perceive the overall PATTERN or COMPOSITION, like balance or rhythm, rather than just individual colors or brushstrokes.
Gestlalt Psychology
Who proposed the PRINCIPLE OF POTENTIALITY, suggesting that if ONE PART of the BRAIN IS DAMAGED, OTHER PARTS CAN TAKE OVER its FUNCTIONS?
Karl Lashley
Which pioneer contributed to developing the FIRST COMPUTER, created the BOMBE MACHINE for DECODING ENIGMA CODES, and explored ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE?
Alan Turing
this can apply into REAL WORLD SETTING
Ecological Validity
Which research method involves CONTROLLING VARIABLES to PREVENT CONTAMINATION OF THE EXPERIMENT?
Control laboratory experiment
What term refers to the STUDY OF BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR?
Psychobiological
What term is used for STUDIES CONDUCTED on INDIVIDUALS who have ALREADY DIED?
Postmortem
What term describes research CONDUCTED on LIVING/ ALIVE INDIVIDUALS using tools like MRI or EEG?
In vivo
This pertains to the application in the APPLICABILITY of your conclusion to other real/ OUTSIDE world
Ecological validity
The degree to which particular findings in one context may be considered RELEVANT OUTSIDE of that CONTEXT
Ecological validity
An experimenter conducts research in a laboratory setting in which he controls as many aspects of the experimental situation as possible
• Advantages
• Enables isolation of causal factors
• Excellent means of testing hypotheses
• Disadvantages
• Often lack of ecological
Controlled laboratory experiments
What is a DISADVANTAGE of CONTROLLED laboratory experiments?
Often lack ecological validity.
Studies the RELATIONSHIP between COGNITIVE performance and CEREBRAL events and STRUCTURES
Psychobiological research
What is psychobiological research concerned with?
Connecting cognitive functions (like memory and perception) with underlying biological processes in the nervous system.
What is the goal of psychobiological research?
To understand how brain structures and activities correlate with mental functions and behavior.
What is a type of psychobiological research that EXAMINES the BRAIN AFTER DEATH
Postmortem studies.
Which type of psychobiological research involves LIVING SUBJECTS and measures BRAIN ACTIVITY using advanced medical equipment?
Studies in vivo
What does PET stand for and where is it used?
Positron Emission Tomography; used to reveal the metabolic or biochemical function of your tissues and organs.
What does fMRI stand for and what is an example of its use?
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging; used to observe brain activity, like detecting memory recall in the hippocampus.
What does EEG stand for and where is it used?
Electroencephalogram; used to measure electrical activity in the brain
What is an advantage of psychobiological research?
Provides "hard" evidence of cognitive functions by relating them to physiological activity.
What does the SELF-REPORT method in cognitive psychology involve?
Participants providing their own information about their cognitive processes, behaviors, and experiences. As an example of this are interview,journal, questionnaire and diaries
What is the primary advantage of using self-report methods?
They provide introspective insights from the participant's point of view.
What does "SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS" mean in the context of SELF-REPORT methods?
Participants tend to report information that they believe is more socially acceptable.
What is a CASE STUDY in the context of psychological research?
A method that involves intensive study of a single individual, group, or event.
What is a significant ADVANTAGE of using CASE STUDIES in psychological research?
They offer richly detailed information about individuals and are good for theory development.
What is a major DISADVANTAGE of case studies?
They have a small sample size, making it difficult to generalize findings.
Which of the following is an example of a case study in developmental psychology?
Phineas Gage and Little Hans
What is naturalistic observation in cognitive psychology?
Observing real-life situations without manipulating or interfering with the environment.
What does COMPUTER STIMULATION in cognitive psychology aim to do?
Attempt to make computers simulate human cognitive performance by creating digital models that mimic thinking, learning, and information processing.
What is an example of artificial intelligence (AI) in cognitive psychology?
ChatGPT, Siri, and Alexa, which attempt to demonstrate intelligent cognitive performance through technology.
What is an ADVANTAGE of using COMPUTER SIMULATIONS in cognitive psychology?
Provides clear testing of theoretical models and predictions.
What is a DISADVANTAGE of using computer simulations and AI in cognitive psychology?
Limited by hardware and software constraints.
Why is data without a theory considered meaningless?
Because data lacks context and understanding without a guiding theoretical framework.
What happens if a theory is used without empirical evidence?
The theory remains empty and lacks empirical support.
What role does a theory play in cognitive psychology?
It provides explanations for data and a basis for predicting other data.
How do cognitive processes typically interact with each other?
They work together and influence each other, even when studied in isolation.
What is an example of how memory processes depend on other cognitive processes?
Memory processes rely on the ability to perceive and interpret information.
What might happen if there is a problem or impairment in one cognitive process?
It can affect and potentially disrupt other cognitive and non-cognitive processes.
Why is it IMPORTANT to use a VARIETY of SCIENTIFIC METHODS to study cognition?
Different methods provide a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive processes.
What is a key reason cognitive psychologists use various techniques in their research?
To gather a more complete and reliable understanding of cognition.
What should researchers consider when using CONTROLLED LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS to study cognition?
The ecological validity of the experimental conditions.
How can basic research in cognitive psychology lead to practical applications?
Basic research may provide insights that lead to immediate practical applications.
What is an example of how basic research can lead to immediate application?
Discovering that learning is more effective when spaced out rather than crammed.
How can applied research contribute to our understanding of basic cognitive processes?
By providing insights that enhance our basic understanding of cognitive processes like memory.
What are the TWO DOMAINS of PROCESSING
Linguistic and Perception