aggression
aggression
can result in physical and psychological harm to oneself other people or the environment
role of genetics
Crucial part
Assumes it's hereditary behaviour
twin studies
Heritability accounts for 50% of variances in aggressive behaviour
Concordance rates:
mz twins- 100%
dz twins- 50%
adoption studies
Aggressive behaviour between adopted child and biological parents = genetic influences operating
aggressive behaviour between adopted child and adoptive parents = Environmental influences operating
The MAOA gene
Controls production of MAO – A enzyme
Is a protein that breaks down excess neurotransmitters
When MAOA gene Is faulty = Imbalance of Serotonin and dopamine, which causes aggression
Low activity variant MAOA – L Results in low activity of MAO – A enzyme linked to aggression, nicknamed warrior gene
genetic mechanisms of aggression ao3
Strength: Selective breeding of mice: Removed the MAOA gene in mice, My be became more aggressive and had disrupted levels of serotonin, Were given medication to balance their serotonin levels and aggressive behaviour stopped- Supports role of genetics in aggression
limitation: Biologically reductionist: reducing a complex behaviour to the influence of a single gene or genetic profile can lead to inaccurate conclusions and ignores the dynamic to play between nature and nurture, By focusing narrowly on genetic influences may overlook portance of broader psychological and social processes
limitation: No acknowledgement of environmental factors: someone may become aggressive because of financial pressures or stressors rather than genetic dysfunction
neural mechanisms- Limbic system
Linked to emotional behaviours, Defined as the hypothalamus and amygdala, implicated in aggression
amygdala
reactivity is an important predictor of aggressive behaviour
gospic et al (2011)- Some participant subjected to mild provocation, Participants reacted aggressively, MRI scans showed fast and heightened response by amygdala
hypothalamus
implicated in aggression
Responsible for regulation of ANS- Helps us determine our emotional responses to situations or threats
orbito frontal cortex And serotonin
Implicated in normal functioning of prefrontal cortex
depleted deficiency of seratonin - reduce self-control, increased impulsivity, increased aggression
Hormonal mechanisms- testosterone
implicated in aggression
Men- High levels of testosterone, More aggressive
Castration studies show removing testes Reduces aggression
neural machanisms ao3
strength: Research support in role of limbic system- Research researchers remove parts of limb system from recess monkeys, Started to demonstrate absence of emotion and fear, Suggested Olympic system is important in regulating aggressive impulses
limitation: alternative structures are implicated- try reduced anxiety disrupt orbitofrontal cortex impulse control function which intern causes aggressive behaviour, Suggest neural regulation of aggression is more complex than some theory suggest
hormonal mechanisms ao3
strength: Research support from rhesus monkeys- giammanco et al (2005) Review of studies confirms the role of testosterone, Male rhesus monkeys theres an increase in testosterone levels and aggressive behaviour during mating season, Show role of testosterone in range of animal species
limitation: Biologically deterministic- Assumes that aggression is the result of biological factors that are beyond an individuals control, Doesn't acknowledge role of free well and choice that people have and how they behave
The ethological Explanations of aggression - Adaptive functions
Aggression is a benefit to survival
Reduces competition for food, etc
Established dominance hierarchy
ritualistic aggress
Series of behaviour is carried out in a set order
Aggressive encounters consist of prolonged period of ritualistic signalling
Aggressive confrontations and with ritual appeasement displays
innate releasing mechanism (irm)
explains the aggression is a fixed action potential (fap)
IRM is hardwired, in built and inherited, Genetically programmed
Activated by external stimulus (Releaser)
Fixed action pattern (fap)
environmental stimulus triggers the IRM then releases a specific sequence of behaviours
Adaptive, instinctive, Stereotyped, Genetically programmed
fap main features
stereotyped
Universal
Ballistic (Follows inevitable course)
Unaffected by learning
Single purpose
Specific sign stimulus
tinbergens research
Male sticklebacks (fish)- Highly territorial
Red spot on underbelly
Aggressive behaviour is initiated if another male enters territory
No red spot= No aggression
once fap is triggered always run its course to completion
the ethological explanations of aggression ao3
strength: tinbergen (1951)
limitation: Issues with extrapolating from animals- Impact scientific credibility of the theory
limitation: biologically reductionist- Assuming that all Aggression can be explained through an eight drives and responses that are triggered by the environment
evolutionary explanations
Favoured by natural selection
Genetic mutations promoting advantageous traits become more common due to survival of the fittest
Aggression may provided advantages when competing for resources
Allows for advantageous genes to be passed on two generations
sexual jealousy
Paternity uncertainty is a result of the threat for male cuckoldry - Raising offspring, that's not his own
Men in evolutionary past who avoid cuckoldry were more reproductively successful
Male retention strategies
Negative inducements- Threats
Direct guarding- Male vigilance, e.g. tracking apps
evolutionary explanation of bullying
bullying occurs because of power imbalance
research is traditionally viewed bullying as a male adapted behaviour- Results from poor social skills or childhood abuse
Evolutionary ancestors viewed bullying as an adaptive strategy
Evolutionary explanations of human aggression ao3
Strengths: Research support from the animal Kingdom- Use evidence from Animal Kingdom where aggression is more commonly observed as an adaptive behaviour used to secure mates, resources or territory
Male to male competition and dominance hierarchy are also seen in humans which supports the idea that aggression may have evolved to enhance survival and reproductive success
Limitations: animal research and extrapolation issues: It may not be directly applicable to humans, Issues with generalising
Reductionist: Ignores roles of cognition, emotion, social context, individual experience, Oversimplifies behaviour by focusing solely on evolutionary pressures
social psychological explanations of aggression- frustration-aggression hypothesis
Argues the aggression is the result of an interaction between an individuals characteristics and features of the situation
The original hypothesis
dollard et al (1937)
Frustration will inevitably lead to aggression and aggression is always the result of frustration
we experienced frustration when any goal directed actions are blocked- Creates an aggressive drive which leads to aggressive thoughts
when is aggression expressed?
FA hypothesis that aggression is not always expressed directly against the source of frustration:
Cause of frustration may be abstract
Fear of consequences
Object of frustration may not be available
So aggression is deflected onto alternatives who are weaker
The weapon effect (cues)
berkowitz (1989)- Frustration mainly creates a readiness for aggression
Presence of aggressive cues in the environment makes acting up upon this much more likely
Participants given electric shocks by Confederate
Later participants had a chance to give electric shocks to confederate
Presence of aggressive environmental cues stimulates aggression
frustration-aggression hypothesis ao3
strength: research support for frustration- aggression: geen (1968) lab study, Jigsaw puzzle in one of three conditions (time limit, impossible to complete, confederate insulted participant), Later participants had opportunity to give Confederates electric shocks, Group who received insults gave the highest level levels of shocks
Limitation: Can't explain cold and calculated: Struggles to explain aggressive acts that are deliberate and planned, e.g. terrorism, Where aggression is to achieve a goal rather than an immediate response to frustration, Suggest suggests aggression can occur without prior frustration
Ignores role of personality and past experience: Undermines individual differences, Personality and past experience can mediate how people respond to frustration
social psychological explanations of human aggression slt
Social learning theory
social psychological explanations of human aggression slt ao3
strength: Real world Application: three media school enrichment programs and crime matters can be demonstrated to counteract program attitudes that may contribute to someone imitating and learning aggression, SLT offers practical steps to reduce the development of aggressive behaviour
Limitation: biological influences- Underestimate the influence of biological factors
Research methods employed: Conducted in controlled conditions
social psychological explanations of aggression: deindividuation
Psychological state that lead leads to the loss of their personal identity
Prevent prevents them being able to self regulate their behaviour, leading to an increased risk of behaving aggressively
crowd behaviour
We lose restraint, lose our senses of individual self identity
Lead leads to diffusion of responsibility for any consequences, Less guilt less remorse
With anonymity and the freedom of social constraints of behaviour individuals behave in ways that they wouldn't normally
zimbardo
in an individuated state, Behaviour is rational
in a deinduviduated state, Behaviour is emotionally irrational and disinhibited
anonymity: Less fear of retribution, Small and unidentifiable part of a faceless crowd
reduced self-awareness
prentice-dunn + rogers (1982)
Private self-awareness- Less internal focus
Public self awareness- No longer care for how others see us
social identity theory
tajfel + turner
in-group: Individual identifies with, Feels a sense of belonging to, More positive and trusted more
out-group: Individual doesn't identify with, More negative and discriminated against
Aggression is more likely when an outgroup is seen as threatening
deindividuation ao3
strength: research support: douglas + mcgarty (2001), Looked at aggressive behaviour online and found strong correlation between anonymity and flaming (hostile messages), More aggressive messages were from those who hide their real identities
Limitation: Environmental reductionist- Assumes aggression can be explained by just one level of explanation, A more holistic approach Would allow socio economic influences to be taken into consideration as well
dispositional explanation
Assumes aggression is caused by the individual and their personality
The importation model
irwin + cressey (1962)
Enter prison with specific treats and learned behaviours
Inmates most likely continue their criminal behaviours once they're inside prison
Import these antisocial behaviours into prison
use of aggression to establish power status and access to resources
situational explanations
Assumes aggression is caused by features of the environment
The deprivation model
clemmer (1958)
harsh prison conditions
1. Deprivation of freedom and autonomy (jobs)
2. Deprivation of maternal goods (personal belongings)
3. Deprivation of safety (group sizes reduced)
4. Deprivation of heterosexual intimacy
prison level factors linked to outcomes
steiner (2009)
Prison regime- unpredictable
512 US prisons- Higher proportion of women's staff- More aggression
dispositional explanations ao3
strength- Research Support: camp + gaes (2005), 561 male inmates, Half place in low security prisons and half in high security, There was no significant difference between aggression after two years, Concludes the features of prison environment are less important predictors
Imitation- Brutalisation and hardening: Suggest that non-aggressive prisoners may become more aggressive as a result of their experiences in prison, Challenges ideas that aggression is solely duty pre-existing dispositions
situational explanations ao3
strength: Research support: zimbardo, Assigned roles and institutional settings can rapidly lead to aggression
limition: Strength for Dispositional are limitations for situational
physiological measures of stress
Skin conductance response
Blood pressure
explain in the role of desensitisation
The reduction in arousal or anxiety in response to aggression in media because of being exposed to it too frequently
Physiological: Increased heart rate high blood pressure, Diminishes over overtime
Psychological: Repeated exposure to violent media, less empathy for victims
explaining the role of disinhibition
The reduction of social and psychological inhibitions about aggressive behaviour
Aggressive media normalise what should remain deviant
Restraints are Loosened after exposure to violent media
Reduced accountability weekends internal control such as guilt
explaining the role of cognitive priming
Exposure to aggressive media can create mental scripts of frameworks for how aggressive situations typically unfold
Individuals more likely to interpret ambiguous situations as hostile
Repeated exposure strengthens these scripts making aggressive responses more automatic
desensitisation ao3
strength: Implications on media regulation- If repeated exposure reduces emotional sensitivity to aggression, this supports causes for stricter media regulation and age ratings
Limitation: Failure to account for individual differences- Personality traits such as high trait, aggression, impulsivity or low empathy may Make some individuals more susceptible to desensitisation, Suggests violent media does not influence all viewers equally
disinhibition ao3
Strength: zimbardo- Reducing identify ability increases aggression supporting disinhibition, Participants in anonymous or uniformed roles act more aggressively than when Identifiable
limitation: Over emphasis on situation factors- Underestimate role of individual differences, Personality traits like high empathy can buffer the effect effects of anonymity
cognitive priming ao3
strength: Real world application- Weather real world situations become violent depend depends on how people interpret environmental cues, Someone who habitually watches violent media accesses stored aggressive scripts more readily
Limitation: Confounding variables- Research into effects of video games has found that violent games tend to be much more complex in their gameplay than non-violent games, Complexity is a confounding variable
media influences of aggression
strength: Excessive TV viewing- Media leads to aggression, Robertson et al (2013) Measured TV viewing hours and found the time spent watching was a reliable protector of aggressive behaviour
Limitation: TV effects not strong- paik + comstock (1994) Meta analysis of 200 studies, Positive correlation between viewing TV violence and antisocial behaviour, However TV violence only accounts for 1% to 10% of variance in Children's aggressive behaviour
strength: Computer games- bartholow + anderson (2002) 10 mins of playing Mortal Kombat or PGA golf, Those who played aggressive game gave a higher mean score of decibels of White Noise, Aggressive game increases likelihood that people will behave aggressively towards others