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Gender Theorist's

- Female language is seen to be weaker and lesser version of male language

Deficit approach

- Men's langauge dominates women

Dominance approach

- Men and women use language due to their different cultures

Difference approach

- Male language forms are the 'norm' and the language of others (including women) were 'deficient'.
- What approach?

Jesperson (Deficit)

- Male language is stronger, more presitgious and more desirable.
- Women's speech can be distinguished from that of men in multiple ways

- What approach?

Lakoff - Langauge and a women's place (Deficit)

- Men not only control women, but also the language system
- What approach?

Spender (Dominance)

- Women's conversational behaviour is less assertive and less confident than that of men precisely because they occupy a less powerful position in society than men
- What approach?

Ardner and Ardner (Dominance)

- Men in their dominance are less concerned with the "conversational shitwork" so they leave it to the women to carry it on
- What approach?

Fishman (Dominance)

- Same sex and mixed sex conversations had similarly distributed interuptions, with most being by men.
- What approach?

Zimmerman and West (Dominance)

- Men and women come from different 'cultures' causing the difference in language.
- What approach?

Tannen (Difference)

- Young females use more standard prestige forms than young males, suggesting a difference is evident in childhood
- What approach?

Cheshire (Difference)

- Women in same sex talk were more collabrative than men were
- What approach?

Pilkington (Difference)

- In an all-male rugby team, men were likely to pay less attention to the need to save face and instead used insults as a way of expressing solidarity
- What approach?

Kuiper (Difference)

- "Varitation is controlled by social and lingutic features"
- Male variation is governed by social norms created by a central standard culture and are transmitted through peer groups

- Female varitation is a more personal process and controlled by rigid norms

- What approach?

Cheshire (Difference)

- Langauge differences are situation specific
- Concerned with authority and power, not the gender

O'bar and Atkins

- Challenged the concept of interuptions only signifying dominance
- Could also suggest interest and desire for involvement

Beattie

- Tag question's can be modal or affective

Holmes

- Hedges are multifunctional based on the situation, context and intonation
- Could signal uncertainty, but also politeness

Holmes

- Identified elements of both cooperative and competative talk in adolecent single sex conversations

Baxter

- 'Myth of Mars and Venus' critisised the notion that there are innate difference in male and female language
- "...great myths of are time"

Cameron

- Gender performativity - refers to the idea that we perform in roles as we communicate

Butler

- Gender similarities hypothesis
- Substantially more similarities than difference in male and female language

Hyde

- Distinct catagories of day and night are clear, but the boundries are foggy

Bing and Bergvall

- A belief that any specific entities have a set of charateristics/attributes that make it what it is and are nessasary to its function of indentity.

Essentialism

- A theory about how identity is created through social interaction
- "Meaning is created through the things we do and say"

Social constructivism

- Practise of giving a universal characteristic to a specific entity
- Generalisation

- Universaling

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