Sociology 150 Midterm
What are the pillars of science?
Logic and Observation
- a scientific assertion must make sense and be supported by empirical observation
What are the steps of the research process?
1. specify the research question
2. review the scientific literature
3. propose a theory and state hypotheses
4. select a research design
5. collect the data
6. analyze the data and draw conclusions
7. disseminate the examples
What are the differences between qualitative and quantitative methods? Provide some examples.
Qualitative: ways of collecting data that yield results such as words or text (eg. in-depth interviews, ethnography, focus groups, etc.)
- gain in-depth understanding of a relatively small number of cases
- potential for greater richness in meaning than quantified data
Quantitative: result in data that can be represented and condensed into numbers (eg. surveys, questionnaires, etc.)
- less depth, more breadth - focus on a larger number of cases
Are quantitative and qualitative methods in opposition to each other? Why or why not?
Quantitative and qualitative research methods are not in opposition to each other. They are rather complementary. These methods differ but its more appropriate to see them as having different goals, strengths, and weaknesses
What is basic research, and how is it different from applied research?
Basic research is conducted simply because of a researcher's curiosity about topics, vs. applied research that is conducted for some purpose beyond or in addition to a researcher's interest in a topic.
What is selective observation? Overgeneralization? Confirmation bias?
Selective observation: noticing only social patterns that one has experienced directly or wishes to find
Overgeneralization: assuming that broad social patterns exist based on very limited observations
Confirmation bias: seek out or recall information that supports one's existing views
What is a variable? Independent Variable? Dependent Variable? Describe w/ examples.
Variable: a characteristic or measure of a social phenomenon that can take different values (eg. height, age, grades in school, etc.)
Independent variable: a variable that causes another (the amount of sleep you get results in how much work gets done, therefore sleep is the independent variable)
Dependent variable: a variable caused by another (the amount of work that gets done is the dependent variable, because it depends on how much sleep is obtained)
-> they depend on independent variables
Probalistic Relationship
Two variables go together w/ some degree or level of regularity. As the level of one variable increases, the level of another variable also tends to increase.
- logical and empirical
- causal
- a word about "expertise"
Causal relationships - what is required to establish causality? How is expertise related to causal mechanisms?
1. There must be a relationship or correlation between the independent and dependent variables
2. The independent variable must be prior to the dependent variable
3. There must be no other variable that is responsible for producing the causal relationship
4. The possibility of reverse causality
Expertise enables individuals to comprehend, manipulate, and communicate causal relationships within their field of specialization. This understanding forms the basis for problem-solving, decision-making, innovation, and effective communication within the domain of expertise.
What is the scientific method? How is it relevant for sociological inquiry?
Is a systematic way for scientists investigate and understand the world around them.
The scientific method is highly relevant for sociological inquiry as it ensures objectivity and consistency in exploring a social pattern. It provides the mean for accuracy, reliability and validity.
What is peer review? How is it relevant for sociological inquiry?
the process by which experts in a particular field evaluate and provide feedback on the quality, validity, and significance of research before it is published or funded. It helps maintain the integrity and credibility of scholarly literature and promotes the advancement of knowledge within academic disciplines.
What is empirical evidence, and why is it important for sociological inquiry?
Evidence that is derived from direct experience and/or observation. It serves as the foundation for sociological inquiry by providing a systematic and objective basis for understanding social phenomena, verifying theories, enhancing credibility, informing policy decisions, facilitating theory building, and promoting critical evaluation within the discipline.
What are control variables and why are they used in sociological inquiry?
A variable that the researcher attempts to statistically "hold constant." It's not a main interest of the study's objectives, but we "statistically control for it" because that variable could potentially influence the other relationships we're interested in. They are used to isolate and account for the influence of extraneous factors that could confound the relationship between the independent and dependent variables under investigation.
What is an interview guide and why/when is it helpful in sociological inquiry?
An interview guide is a structured plan/outline used by researchers or interviewers to conduct qualitative interviews. It is helpful because it promotes structured and systematic data collection, aligns with research objectives, standardizes the interview process, minimizes bias, enhances rapport, ensures efficiency, and supports subsequent data analysis
what is a hypothesis? what is a null hypothesis? include examples
Hypothesis: an educated guess or prediction about something that can be tested in a scientific study
Null hypothesis: a statement that suggests there is no significant difference or relationship between variables in a study.
example: if one were to investigate whether there's a relationship between economic status and educational attainment, the null hypothesis might state that there is no association between these two variables.
What is generalizability and how is it related to sampling and representativeness
Generalizability: how much we can apply the findings of a study to a larger group
Sampling: the more effectively a sample represents the population, the greater the generalizability of the study's findings
Representativeness: achieving representativeness in sampling enhances the generalizability of study findings because it allows researchers to make inferences about the broader population based on the characteristics of the sample
What is random assignment? Why and when is it used in sociological inquiry
Random assignment: a research technique used to assign participants or subjects to different groups in a study randomly.
this gives each individual a chance of being assigned to any group and the assignment process is not influenced by any factors other than chance.
it's used primarily in experimental research designs.
What are free-text open-ended responses useful for as a research method? Provide some examples that were used in class
they are a qualitative research method used to gather detailed and in-depth information from participants. unlike closed-end questions with predefined response options, open-ended questions allow the participant to provide unrestricted and unprompted answers
The word systematic is often used to argue that sociology is a science. What does it mean?
when one says sociology is "systematic", it means that it follows clear and organized methods for studying society. This includes using consistent ways to collect data, testing ideas with evidence, and building on what's already known. This structured approach helps make sociology a reliable and scientific field of study
Why are objectivity, focus, and consistency important for sociological inquiry
objectivity: researchers need to be unbiased and fair when they study society so their personal opinions don't influence the findings
focus: to have a clear idea of what researchers want to study and to stick to it. this helps in gathering relevant information and drawing meaningful conclusions
consistency: using the same methods and standards throughout the research process makes the findings more reliable and allows others to replicate the study to see if they get similar results
What is meant by “knowledge is cumulative”
means that new discoveries and insights in the field are built upon what we already know. Using past research, developing theories further, and gathering new evidence to deepen our understanding of society.
What is operationalization? Examples. And why is correlation often important in this process
Operationalization: turning vague ideas into measurable things. Example: when talking about "happiness", sociologists might measure how often people smile or laugh. It's turning something broad into measurable steps
Correlation is important because it helps validate the measures used to study abstract concepts and provides evidence of the relationships between those measures and the concepts they represent
What is variation? Provide an example from class- for example, mastery or loneliness examples
Variation: refers to the differences or diversity within a population or group. it's the idea that not everyone is the same; individuals have different experiences, behaviours, characteristics, and/or outcomes
Example: TO BE CONTINUED LOL
Argue why sociology is a science...
Sociology is considered a science because it employs systematic methods of inquiry, adheres to principles of empirical research, and aims to develop theories and explanations based on evidence
Forced Vacation: What motivated the study
The challenges and unique circumstances posed by the pandemic, the potential impact of temporary layoffs on individuals’ mental health, the need to address the gaps in existing research, and the implications for policy and intervention efforts aimed at supporting affected individuals during the time
Forced Vacation: What model did they follow
stress model/stress process model/ transactional model of stress and coping???
Forced vacation: what is a countervailing factor and what is an example in this study
A countervailing factor is a variable or factor that offsets or mitigates the effects of another variable/factor.
Example: financial resilience. Individuals who have sufficient savings, access to financial resources, or alternative sources of income may have been better equipped to weather the financial strain associated with temporary layoffs, thereby reducing their overall level of stress and anxiety compared to those who faced more severe financial hardship.
forced vacation: what is a longitudinal research design and how is it used in this study
What is it: a type of research method that involves collecting data from the same individuals or groups over an extended period of time. It shows changes, trends, and developments within the same population over time.
They used it to investigate how the experiences of individuals who were temporarily laid off during the pandemic evolved over time.
forced vacation: why did the researchers use qualitative methods and how were they useful for interpreting the quantitative results. provide examples
The researchers used qualitative methods to complement the quantitative data collected in the study. They used it to get in-depth information, to find unique experiences, perceptions, and meanings.
forced vacation: how do the mixed methods in this study align with the ideas of inductive versus deductive approaches
inductive: qualitative, it focuses on interviews or focus groups to explore individuals experiences, which follows an inductive approach. It creates a hypothesis based on information already gathered
Deductive: a quantitative method like surveys assessing stress levels follows a deductive approach. It starts with a hypothesis, then tests it, then concludes the findings
Both: The mixed-methods approach in this study involves integrating both deductive and inductive elements to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research topic. By combining quantitative data analysis with qualitative exploration, the researchers can triangulate findings, validate interpretations, and enrich the interpretation of results. For example, quantitative data may provide statistical evidence of the relationship between temporary layoff and stress levels, while qualitative data may offer nuanced insights into the mechanisms through which temporary layoff affects individuals' well-being and coping strategies.
stressors: how important are "concepts" in sociological research
Concepts play a crucial role in sociological research as they serve as the building blocks for understanding, analyzing, and explaining social phenomena.
Concepts provide theoretical foundations for research
It’s the basis for operationalization
stressors: why do sociologists sometimes identify different qualities or dimensions within concepts
They deepen the understanding and analysis of social phenomena
Because social reality is so complex, identifying different qualities or dimensions within concepts captures the richness and diversity of social reality, allowing for a more nuanced analysis of the phenomena under their study
stressors: why do researchers often like to use models in their studies? what function does it serve
Researchers often use models in their studies because models serve various functions that facilitate understanding, analysis, and communication of complex phenomena
They help clarify concepts, contribute to theoretical development, tests hypotheses, create predictions, and serve as visual and communicative tools
Stressors: how important are relationships between concepts in sociological research?
Because they provide the framework for understanding the complex dynamics of social life. These relationships help sociologists analyze how various factors interact to shape individual behavior, social institutions, and broader societal processes.
stressors: why are sociologists sometimes interested in focusing on "levels" of social reality in their research
Sociologists are often interested because it allows them to analyze the complexity of social phenomena from different perspectives and scales of analysis. By examining social phenomena on multiple levels, sociologists can gain a more comprehensive understanding of how individual actions, interpersonal interactions, institutional dynamics, and broader structural forces intersect to shape social life
stressors: what is a conditioning factor and how does it play out in sociological research
A conditioning factor is a variable or aspect of social life that influences the relationship between stressors, and distress. They shape how individuals perceive, experience, and respond to stressful situations.
stressors: how do sociologists who study stress and mental health, attempt to measure distress-and what are some of the main challenges
They typically attempt to measure distress by using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods aka mixed methods
Challenges : subjectivity, stigma and disclosure, cross-culturally validity, complexity of stressors
stressors: how can ideas, concepts, and discoveries from one discipline influence those in another discipline? use the development of stress theory as an example
Ideas, concepts, and discoveries from one can influence another through interdisciplinary collaboration, cross-fertilization of ideas, and the application of novel perspectives.
The development of stress theory provides a compelling example of how insights from various disciplines have contributed to our understanding of stress and its effects on health and well-being
stressors: how are terms like "social structure" and "systems of stratification" useful in sociological inquiry
Terms like these are fundamental concepts that provide a framework for understanding. They’re essential tools in sociological inquiry that explain inequalities, develop strategies for promoting social justice, and help analyze patterns
stressors: why is the process of "cumulative knowledge" so important in sociological inquiry? use published articles about the stress process as an example
It’s crucial because it allows researchers to build upon existing theories, methods, and findings to advance our understanding of complex social phenomena over time. stress processes, cumulative knowledge plays a central role in refining theoretical frameworks, developing measurement tools, and generating empirical evidence to address key research questions
What is methodology?
The set of practices and techniques used to collect, process, and interpret information aimed at enhancing our understanding of reality