Cognition 2
Match the following term to the correct definition.
(1) Encoding
(2) Storage
(3) Retrieval
a) Maintaining information in memory
b) Putting information into long-term memory stores
c) Re-activating and using previously learned information
(1) Encoding b) Putting information into long-term memory stores
(2) Storage a) Maintaining information in memory
(3) Retrieval c) Re-activating and using previously learned information
What's the term that refers to how long information can be stored in memory?
Duration
What is the term that refers to how much information can be stored in memory?
Capacity
Imagine that you're running a memory study and want to see how your participants' memory capacity varies when they are in different moods. After inducing participants to feel different moods (happy, sad, or excited), you show them a series of words to recall later. Which of the following would be an appropriate measure of their memory capacity?
a) How happy, sad, or excited the participants feel on a 1–10 scale
b) The amount of time it took for participants to recite the shown words
c) The amount of time it took for participants to utter the first recalled word
d) A count of how many of the shown words they can recite
d) A count of how many of the shown words they can recite
What does the information processing, or modal, model explain?
a) Where information is stored in the brain
b) How incoming input from the environment is conceptually stored in the mind
c) Where different types of sensory, short-term, and long-term memory are stored separately in the brain
b) How incoming input from the environment is conceptually stored in the mind
Whatever you are thinking about right now is occupying your ______ memory.
a) Sensory
b) Short-term
c) Long-term
d) None of the above
b) Short-term
What is the process that moves information from sensory memory into short-term memory?
a) Attention
b) Encoding
c) Retrieval
a) Attention
When LED lights are moved quickly through space, why does this produce a "spread out" pattern?
a) The high speed of the lights creates energy in the surrounding areas
b) The persistence of vision retains multiple positions of the lights as they move through space
c) The LEDs are moving at a speed too fast for your brain to process and therefore partial information is lost
d) Your long-term memory stores past information while your sensory memory is still processing it
b) The persistence of vision retains multiple positions of the lights as they move through space
What's the duration of iconic memory?
a) 30 seconds
b) 1 second
c) 1 minute
d) 5-6 seconds
b) 1 second
In the experiment Inoue and Matsuzawa (2007) conducted, they compared memory performance between humans and chimpanzees. They found that most humans' memory performance for the five digits decreased when the presentation time dipped below 400 ms. However, the chimpanzees were able to store these five digits with 200 ms of exposure.
How many itms did the test require the participants to remember?
a) 4
b) 7
c) 15
d) 9
d) 9
On how many trials was Ayumu able to correctly remember the order of the numbers?
a) Nearly 10% of the trials
b) A third of the time
c) Nearly 90% of the trials
d) All of the trials
c) Nearly 90% of the trials
Chase and Simon (1973) demonstrated which of the following facilitates the storage of information?
a) Practice
b) Having a higher IQ
c) Attaching meaning to the information
d) Thinking about the information for a longer amount of time
c) Attaching meaning to the information
Based on the evidence discussed in the two studies above, which of these is the most supported explanation for why forgetting occurs in short-term memory?
a) Interference
b) Decay
c) A combination of interference and decay
d) Neither decay nor interference
c) A combination of interference and decay
Stewart is a senior in high school and has had to change his school email account each year. As he is entering his new password, he keeps getting an error message because the password is wrong. It turns out that he keeps entering his freshman year password. His inability to remember his newest password in this example is due to ______.
a) Proactive interference
b) Retroactive interference
c) A combination of retroactive and proactive interference
d) Non of the above
a) Proactive interference
Would the sensory memory (not short-term memory) of chess experts be better than that of non-experts for chess piece configurations, and why?
a) No, because they can only chunk information that's processed in short-term memory, not sensory memory
b) No, because they can only rehearse in short-term memory, not sensory memory
c) Yes, because they can chunk information by sending it to long-term memory
d) Yes, because they can rehearse information in sensory memory
a) No, because they can only chunk information that's processed in short-term memory, not sensory memory
Match the definitions to the correct parts of Baddeley's working memory model.
(1) Visuo-spatial sketchpad
(2) Phonological loop
(3) Central executive
a) The coordinator of information between working memory areas
b) The ability to store auditory information in your mind
c) The ability to imagine and manipulate visual information in your mind
(1) Visuo-spatial sketchpad c) The ability to imagine and manipulate visual information in your mind
(2) Phonological loop b) The ability to store auditory information in your mind
(3) Central executive a) The coordinator of information between working memory areas
Conrad (1974) found that participants confused letters that ______ to each other when performing a free recall task.
a) Sound similar
b) Look similar
c) Sound different
d) Look different
a) Sound similar
Vogel, McCollough, and Machizawa (2005) demonstrated that individuals with high short-term memory capacity ______.
a) Are better at paying attention to irrelevant information but experience a trade-off in executive processing
b) Can better track multiple moving objects and therefore have a higher performing memory
c) Are negatively correlated with central executive processing abilities
d) Are better at focusing on relevant information and filtering irrelevant information
d) Are better at focusing on relevant information and filtering irrelevant information
Which of the following is one job of the central executive, according to the working memory model?
a) Attach meaning to incoming information
b) Activate relevant associations for new information to make it easier to remember
c) Replay verbal information in your mind to help you remember the auditory information
d) Coordinate between the visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop
d) Coordinate between the visuo-spatial sketchpad and phonological loop
What improvements do working memory training games offer?
a) They offer overall brain health because working memory is so integral to every facet of cognition
b) The training games facilitate neuroplasticity and are empirically proven to be effective
c) They have very specific and possibly limited effects but do not appear harmful in any way
d) they prevent Alzheimer's degredation and cognitive decline
c) They have very specific and possibly limited effects but do not appear harmful in any way
According to the working memory model, differences in short-term memory capacity are most likely attributable to which component?
a) The phonological loop
b) The visuo-spatial sketchpad
c) The central executive
d) The episodic buffer
c) The central executive
Where does working memory take place in the brain?
a) The temporal lobes
b) The parietal lobes
c) The occipital lobes
d) In modality-specific regions in the brain
d) In modality-specific regions in the brain
Which area of the brain appears to be important for directing resources of working memory?
a) Frontal lobes
b) Parietal lobes
c) Occipital lobes
d) Central sulcus
a) Frontal lobes
If someone is trying to remember both visual and auditory information at the same time, what brain areas might we expect to be activated?
a) The occipital, temporal and frontal lobes
b) The occipital and temporal lobes
c) The temporal lobes
d) The occipital lobe
a) The occipital, temporal and frontal lobes
Information remains in sensory memory for ______.
a) A second or a fraction of a second
b) 15-30 seconds
c) 1-3 minutes
d) As long as it's rehearsed
a) A second or a fraction of a second
When a sparkler is twirled rapidly, people perceive a circle of light. This occurs because ______.
a) The trail you see is caused by sparks left behind from the sparkler
b) Due to its super high intensity, we see the light from the sparkler for about a second after it goes out
c) The length of iconic memory (the persistence of vision) is about 1/25th of a second
d) Gestalt principles work to complete the circle in our minds
c) The length of iconic memory (the persistence of vision) is about 1/25th of a second
Compared to sensory memory, short-term memory has ______.
a) Low-capacity; long duration
b) High capacity; short duration
c) High capacity; long duration
d) Low capacity; short duration
a) Low-capacity; long duration
The conclusion from the experiment in which a chess master and a chess novice (beginner) were asked to remember the positions of chess pieces on a chess board was that ______.
a) Chess masters outperform novices in all conditions
b) Chess masters have developed better memory skills than novices
c) Novices do better because they are not distracted by irrelevant knowledge about previous chess games
d) Chess masters did better only when possible real game arrangements were used
d) Chess masters did better only when possible real game arrangements were used
Learning new material for the upcoming exam that makes it harder to remember material from the last exam is an example of ______.
a) Mesoactive interference
b) Proactive interference
c) Retroactive interference
d) Interactive interference
c) Retroactive interference
Sarah is studying for her chemistry test. She decides to create mnemonic devices to better facilitate her ______ of the material.
a) Encoding
b) Attention
c) Interference
d) Retrieval
a) Encoding
Which of the following cognitive functions use the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval?
a) Motion perception
b) Learning names
c) Applying previously learned math formulas on a test
d) Remembering a friend's phone number
e) All of the above
e) All of the above
Order the following stores of memory in order of the duration they store information (longest to shortest).
short-term memory; long-term memory; sensory memory
long-term memory; short-term memory; sensory memory
Joe and Margo are headed to the grocery store but need to write their grocery list first. Margo is reading off items to Joe to write down. As she is rattling off items, Joe exclaims, “Slow down! I can’t keep all of these items in my mind long enough to get them written. I keep forgetting items.” Margo has listed too many items and has exceeded his ______ for number of items he can store into his short-term memory.
a) Duration
b) Capacity
c) Ability
d) Durability
b) Capacity
The ability to "write" in the air with sparklers is theorized to be possible because of our ______.
a) Attentional capacity
b) Ability to imagine what others would write
c) Persistence of vision
d) Long-term memory storage
c) Persistence of vision
Why were phone numbers originally designed to have seven digits?
a) Even numbers seemed too weird to the average telephone user
b) It needed to be long enough to give everyone unique numbers
c) It's the average capacity of our short-term memory
d) Longer than seven digits caused attentional capacities to decrease, hindering memory
c) It's the average capacity of our short-term memory
_____________ is a form of sensory memory.
Echoic memory
Mary is trying to commit the names of her new co-workers to her long-term memory by associating each name with a rhyme or an object. During a company meeting a week later, she happily discovers that she is able to successfully ______ each name from her long-term memory.
recall
Chase and Simon (1973) tested short-term memory capacity between novice and expert chess players. What was the significance of their findings?
a) They found that experts are experts because they have better memory for most things
b) Expert chess players were more likely to remember only meaningful chunks of information that related to the game
c) Novice players excelled at remembering random arrangements of chess pieces because they had no interference from past games
d) Novice players excelled at remembering organized chunks of information because they no proactive interference from previous games
b) Expert chess players were more likely to remember only meaningful chunks of information that related to the game
Dustin has started dating Jolene and discovers that he is so infatuated with her that he struggles to even remember his old girlfriends’ names. His inability to remember the older names is an example of _____________.
a) Retroactive interference
b) Proactive interference
c) Memory recall
d) Recall blockade
a) Retroactive interference
Which part of Baddeley's working memory model is posited to control the flow of information?
a) Phonological loop
b) Visuo-spatial sketchpad
c) Central executive
d) None of the above
c) Central executive
According to Baddeley, trying to "replay" a phone number in your mind in order to remember it uses which part of your working memory?
a) Phonological loop
b) Visuo-spatial sketchpad
c) Central executive
d) None of the above
a) Phonological loop
Being given the letters "C" and "T" to remember but incorrectly recalling them as "V" or "B" would be called _________.
a) Phonological error
b) Phonological slip
c) Misnomer
d) Acoustic confusion
d) Acoustic confusion
Which of the following might you expect from someone with a higher memory span?
a) They will most likely be happier since memory span is associated with IQ and IQ with happiness.
b) They will be better at procedural tasks, such as driving.
c) If working in a chaotic environment, they may be better able to focus on the task at hand and ignore external visual and auditory information compared to someone with lower memory span.
d) They will be faster at typing a pre-written term paper compared to someone with lower memory span.
c) If working in a chaotic environment, they may be better able to focus on the task at hand and ignore external visual and auditory information compared to someone with lower memory span.
Your grandmother is excited because she just signed up to take a "brain training" course though an online game developer. What would you tell her?
a) That’s great! I’ve heard these types of programs help slow cognitive decline and the skills will transfer to many daily tasks.
b) I hope you didn’t pay a lot! Although working memory is important, the skills you learn may not transfer to tasks in your daily life.
c) That’s great! I think working memory is very important to many tasks, so this will be very helpful.
d) I hope you didn’t pay a lot! I heard there are many similar programs that offer great working memory training for free!
b) I hope you didn’t pay a lot! Although working memory is important, the skills you learn may not transfer to tasks in your daily life.
Working memory capacity has been correlated with, and shown to predict, which of the following?
a) Happiness
b) General intellligence
c) Music ability
d) Motor dexterity
b) General intelligence
While completing a spatial rotation task, which area of your brain may be active to support this task?
a) Frontal lobes
b) Temporal lobes
c) Basal ganglia
d) Cingulate gyrus
a) Frontal lobes
_____________ tests are one example of a task researchers use to explore areas of the brain that are active while participants are actively trying to hold information in their working memory to apply to a future task.
Delayed-match to sample
In general, where does working memory occur in the brain?
a) Frontal lobes
b) Parietal lobes
c) Temporoparietal network
d) In several regions across the cortex
d) in several regions across the cortex
How is information typically stored in long-term memory?
a) in terms of its sound
b) in terms of its meaning
c) in terms of its visual appearance
d) in terms of its emotional content
b) in terms of its meaning
Accurately remembering information from a previous chapter in this book depends on which type of memory?
a) short-term
b) sensory
c) long-term
d) factual
c) long-term
Kayla Hutchinson has retrograde amnesia. Which of the following does she have trouble experiencing?
a) making new memories
b) remembering names and faces of new people
c) recalling events and information from her past
d) the inability to learn new tasks
c) recalling events and information from her past
Both patient H.M. and Clive Wearing had damage to which part of their brain?
a) frontal lobes
b) hippocampus
c) parietal lobes
d) occipital lobes
b) hippocampus
Based on H.M.'s and Clive's Wearing's cases, what's the hippocampus necessary for?
a) encoding new information and experimental memories
b) remembering procedural tasks
c) recalling your name
d) maintaining your IQ
a) encoding new information and experimental memories
What's a memory short-cut or technique used to help improve your memory called?
a) chunking strategy
b) encoding technique
c) mnemonic device
d) retrieval guide
c) mnemonic device
According to the results from Craik and Tulving's 1972 study, which study question below do you think would lead to the best recall of vocabulary terms for students?
a) does this term rhyme with another term?
b) what other terms are connected to this term?
c) is this term highlighted?
d) was this term bolded in the text?
b) what other terms are connected to this term?
Having external or internal cues present while trying to remember information that was present during encoding that information leads to more successful retrieval. What is this phenomenon called?
a) encoding specificity
b) state-dependent specificity
c) recall success
d) retrieval specificity
a) encoding specificity
Imagine that you are in your living room when you get a craving for ice cream. You get up, walk into your kitchen, and suddenly can't remember why you're in there. Deciding not to worry about it, you walk back into the living room. Once you're back in the living room, you remember that you wanted ice cream! This improved recall in the living room compared to the kitchen would exemplify which of the following?
a) transfer-appropriate processing
b) context-dependent memory
c) state-dependent memory
d) encoding transfer
b) context-dependent memory
According to research by Levine et al. (2004), when we recall episodic and personally relevant events, which area of the brain is relatively more active than when we remember semantic information?
a) frontal lobes
b) pareital lobes
c) occipital lobes
d) corpus callosum
c) occipital
Rating a person, song, or advertisement more favourable because you have experienced it before is known as what?
a) commercial effect
b) propaganda effect
c) familiarity effect
d) reconsolidation effect
c) familiarity effect
What's the rat's response to the electrified grid?
a) jumping
b) freezing
c) squeaking
d) running away
b) freezing
What's one of the applications the fear chamber can be used to test?
a) other conditioned stimuli
b) different species' reaction to fear
c) the impact of lesions on fear
d) other unconditioned responses
c) the impact of lesions on fear
Patient S.M. doesn't experience fear because she has bilateral damage to what part of her brain?
a) amygdala
b) hippocampus
c) thalamus
d) basal ganglia
a) amygdala
What's the mechanism in which a neuron becomes more likely to fire over time due to repeated stimulation?
a) hypopotentiation
b) short-term potentiation
c) long-term potentiation
d) long-term consolidation
c) long-term potentiation
Which area of the brain is considered important for consolidation of episodic memories?
a) amygdala
b) parietal lobe
c) temporal lobe
d) hippocampus
d) hippocampus
Which of the following is not a function of semantic knowledge?
a) helps us predict how to behave in a new situation
b) helps us make inferences about the information
c) helps us create an organized, connected understand of the world
d) helps us create meaningful connections to other people
d) helps us create meaningful connections to other people
Which of the folloeing statements is correct?
a) poodle is an exemplar of a dog category
b) poodle is an exemplar of a dog feature
c) poodle is a feature of a dog category
d) poodle is a category of a dog concept
a) poodle is an exemplar of a dog category
Consider Medin's definition of concepts. When do you predict that infants would develop a concept of "cup"?
a) when their language has developed enough to produce the word
b) after they see an adult name and point to a cup
c) when their motor skills have developed enough to use a cup
d) when their visual system has developed enough to see a cup clearly
c) when their motor skills have developed enough to use a cup
Why is it a problem for the classical approach to categorization that people believe some category members are "better" exemplars than others?
a) because the classical approach believes that category membership relies on lists of sufficient features
b) because the classical approach does not allow for an individual’s value judgments
c) because it is nearly impossible to identify defining category features for most categories
d) because, according to the classical approach, category membership is all-or-none
d) because, according to the classical approach, category membership is all-or-none
Imagine you are asked to name as many fruits as you can in 30 seconds. Which of the following are you most likely going to say?
a) apple, orange, banana
b) coconut, pineapple, guava
c) tomato, olive, squash
d) plum, apricot, pomegranate
a) apple, orange, banana
When giving typicality ratings for the bird category, where 1 is an excellent example and 7 is a terrible example, participants frequently rate a bat as a 6 instead of a 7. Why is this a problem for the classical approach to categorization?
a) because a bat doesn't share very many features with birds
b) because a bat is unambiguously not a bird
c) because not all birds can fly like bats
d) because participants should know that a bat is a mammal
b) because a bat is unambiguously not a bird
Consider Onishi and colleagues' (2008) experiment in which participants had to reproduce sentences such as "A turkey and a robin took a walk around the lake." What pattern of results would support the classical approach to categorization?
a) sentence production would depend on participants' familiarity with robins and turkeys.
b) participants would not make any mistakes when producing the sentences.
c) participants would take longer to produce sentences about turkeys than sentences about robins.
d) participants would be equally likely to recall "A turkey and a robin took a walk around the lake" as "A robin and a turkey took a walk around the lake."
d) participants would be equally likely to recall "A turkey and a robin took a walk around the lake" as "A robin and a turkey took a walk around the lake."
Which of the following is true of a prototype?
a) it is a mental abstraction that corresponds to a real-world object.
b) it shares at least one feature with all category members.
c) it has the largest number of characteristic features of all category members.
d) it corresponds to the most frequently observed category exemplar.
c) it has the largest number of characteristic features of all category members.
Why are context effects a problem for the prototype view of categorization?
a) because not everyone has the same idea about what "context" means
b) because prototype theory doesn't explain how characteristic features can differ between contexts
c) because family resemblance changes across contexts
d) because prototype theory doesn't account for individual differences in typicality ratings
b) because prototype theory doesn't explain how characteristic features can differ between contexts
How are prototype theory and exemplar theory different from each other?
a) only prototype theory can explain typicality effects
b) only exemplar theory considers the similarity between items
c) they differ in the number of items that are stored in memory
d) they differ in how they define category features
c) they differ in the number of items that are stored in memory
According to knowledge-based theories of categorization, how do we know an apple is a fruit?
a) we have seen other similar fruits
b) we have an implicit understanding of what makes something a fruit
c) we test unconscious theories of category membership
d) we have an innate ability to categorize natural categories, such as fruits
b) we have an implicit understand of what makes something a fruit
Participants give consistent responses when asked to give typicality ratings to well-defined categories. Why is this a problem for the prototype and exemplar theories?
a) because it casts doubt on theories that are based on results of typicality ratings
b) because participants will do whatever they're told to do in an experiment
c) because well-defined categories don't exist in the natural world
d) because prototype and exemplar theories are both similarity-based theories
a) because it casts doubt on theories that are based on results of typicality ratings
A benefit of a knowledge-based view of categorization is that it explains why items are grouped into categories. This benefit fits well with which idea about concepts and categories?
a) Medin's definition of concepts
b) the classical approach to categorization
c) Rosch's prototype theory of categorization
d) exmplar theory
a) Medin's definition of concepts
Which of the following is true about category levels?
a) the subordinate level is informative and distinctive
b) the superordinate level is informative but not distinctive
c) the subordinate level is distinctive but not informative
d) the superordinate level is distinctive but not informative
d) the superordinate level is distinctive but not informative
In what way does Collins and Quillian's hierarchical model display cognitive economy?
a) by storing all information related to a concept together in a single concept node
b) by matching what researchers already knew about superordinate, basic, and subordinate category levels
c) by only storing properties once at the highest level possible in the hierarchy
d) by allowing fast access to related concepts by pathway connections within the hierarchy
c) by only storing properties once at the highest level possible in the hierarchy
Which empirically demonstrated result was the hierarchical model unable to explain that led Collins and Loftus to propose a spreading activation model of semnatic knowledge?
a) context effects
b) typicality effects
c) priming
d) sentence verification
b) typicality effects
Bartlett's research was influential because it demonstrated which of the following?
a) our memories are influenced by our previous knowledge and beliefs
b) everyone shares the same schematic knowledge
c) people's memories are usually quite inaccurate
d) our memories are influenced by tasks instructions
a) our memories are influenced by our previous knowledge and beliefs
Some jurisdictions are starting to paint emergency vehicles yellow for easier visibility. Imagine your city starts to paint fire engines yellow. Predict how your performance on a lexical decision task would change after being primed with the words "fire engine" if fire engines were yellow instead of red.
a) you would be slower to respond to the word "pears"
b) you would be faster to respond to the word "cherries"
c) response time to the word "apples" would remain unchanged
d) you would be faster to respond to the word "red"
a) you would be faster to repsond to the word "pears"
Which of the following implications is possible considering how distinctive and informative different category levels are?
a) "crystal" is a subordinate category level for a geologist
b) "rose" is a subordinate level for a florist
c) "cow" is a basic category level for a dairy farmer
d) "poodle" is superordinate category level for a vet
d) "poodle" is superordinate category level for a vet
In what way are connectionist models and semantic network models similar?
a) information relies on many interconnections between nodes
b) both include the idea of sreading activation to semantically related concepts
c) both describe weighted connections between nodes
d) both contain information in concept nodes
a) information relies on many interconnections between nodes
Category-specific deficits can be explained by which property of connectionist models?
a) semantic dementia
b) graceful degradation
c) weighted connections
d) backpropagation
b) graceful degradation
Schnall, Zadra, and Proffitt (2010) were interested in studying the connection between action and thought. In one experiment they demonstrated that participants judged the incline of a hill to be steeper if they had low energy (reduced blood glucose) compared to participants who did not have low energy. What does this support?
a) a weak view of embodied cognition
b) a causal view of embodied cognition
c) no relationship between action and thought
d) a relationship between sensory neurons and cognition
a) a weak view of embodied cognition
According to Barsalou, which of the following is true about how knowledge is stored?
a) in our bodies and our environments
b) as a pattern of activation in sensorimotor neurons
c) as abstract categories and concepts
d) as categories and concepts with sensory details
b) as a pattern of activation in sensorimotor neurons
Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002) provided evidence supporting the idea that knowledge is context-dependent. What result from their experiment would have suggested that knowledge is not context-dependent?
a) participants would not have been able to complete the task
b) participants would not have been effectively primed by the "prime sentence"
c) reaction times would be faster for the mismatched than the matched conditions
d) reaction times would be the same for the matched and mismatched conditions
d) reaction times would be the same for the matched and mismatched conditions
Which of the following can be inferred from Hauk, Johnsrude, and Pulvermüller's (2004) experiment?
a) knowledge about the concept "kick" is caused by activity in motor neurons responsible for causing a kicking action
b) knowledge of concepts of certain actions (like "kick") shares similar neural patterns as real actions
c) embodied cognition theories can explain our understanding of concepts
d) those with better motor skills will also have better understanding of concepts (e.g., people who are good at kicking a ball will have more advanced understanding of the concept "kick")
b) knowledge of concepts of certain actions (like "kick") shares similar neural patterns as real actions
Which of the following describes a patient with semantic dementia?
a) is unable to verbally label visually presented objects, but can demonstrate how to use them
b) is unable to verbally label objects presented in any modality and is unable to accurately use them
c)is unable to accurately use everyday objects but van verbally label them when presented visually
d) is unable to accurately use everyday objects or verbally label them when presented visually, but can identify items by touch
b) is unable to verbally label objects presented in any modality and is unable to accurately use them
Select all the following that are problems for the theory that ATL is where semantic knowledge is localized in the brain.
a) patients with category-specific knowledge deficits have damage to ATL
b) patients with semantic dementia have reduced cell volume in ATL
c) similar brain areas are active when performing actions and reading action words
d) healthy participant show a distributed pattern of activity during semantic memory tasks
a) patients with category-specific knowledge deficits have damage to ATL
c) similar brain areas are active when performing actions and reading action words
d) healthy participant show a distributed pattern of activity during semantic memory tasks
Probic et al. 92010) found naming speeds for non-living things were slowed when TMS was applied to which brain area(s)?
a) anterior temporal lobe
b) inferior parietal lobe
c) anterior temporal and inferior parietal lobe
d) motor cortex
c) anterior temporal lobe and inferior parietal lobe
Imaging studies with healthy participants do not show increased activation of ATL during semantic tasks, but patients with semantic dementia have damage to ATL. How can these conflicting findings be reconciled by the hub-and-spoke model?
a) abstract knowledge is stored in the hub and modality specific knowledge is stored in the spokes
b) imaging studies show relative changes in brain activity so different patterns of ATL activity would not appear if it is involved in all semantic knowledge tasks
c) ATL is only involved in knowledge representation in damaged brains
d) imaging studies are correlational so evidence from brain damage is more likely accurate
b) imaging studies show relative changes in brain activity so different patterns of ATL activity would not appear if it is involved in all semantic knowledge tasks
What's the most fundamental difference between human language and animal communication?
a) the presence of a grammar
b) the number of words
c) the kinds of words
a) the presence of a grammar
Which of these best describes Alex the parrot's linguistic abilities?
a) understands lots of words, but not abstract terms such as colour and shape
b) understands lots of words including abstract terms such as colour and shape
c) mimics human speech without having an understanding of the terms
d) understands few words and not abstract terms such as colour and shape
b) understands lots of words including terms such as colour and shape
Which of these best characterizes the language abilities of Alex the parrot and Washoe the chimp?
a) animals are unable to produce true language, unless they were taught from birth
b) animals are able to produce true language, with extensive training
c) animals are unable to produce true language, even with extensive training
d) animals produce true language, even in the wild
c) animals are unable to produce true language, even with extensive training
According to B.F. Skinner, what theoretical approach could account for language?
a) modeling and formal training
b) reinforcement and inborn mechanisms
c) reinforcement and modelling
d) genes and formal training
c) reinforcement and modeling
Which of these best characterizes the view of Noam Chomsky concerning the origins of language?
a) language is learned through reinforcement and modeling
b) language learning is not an inborn capacity
c) there's an innate capacity to learn language that's present only after experience with language
d) there's an innate capacity to learn language that's present prior to any actual language experience
d) there's an innate capacity to learn language that's present prior to any actual language experience
What is Noam Chomsky's argument that some language capabilities must be innate because the rules of grammar are often ambiguous called?
a) the poverty of the stimulus
b) under-defined examples
c) the ambiguity problem
d) latent learning
a) the poverty of the stimulus
The children of pidgin speakers take the broken language of their parents and turn it into a fully expressive new language, called a creole. What is this an example of?
a) people acquiring grammar without sufficient stimuli
b) people acquiring grammar with sufficient stimuli
c) the relationship between all languages of the world
d) the ambiguity of words
a) people acquiring grammar without sufficient stimuli
What is the typical language development of deaf isolates, who can’t hear but are not exposed to any real sign language?
a) they never develop any form of sign language even if exposed to it by others
b) they often develop some form of sign language even if not exposed to it by others
c) they only develop some form of sign language if they are exposed to it by others
d) they develop some form of sign language if they had some hearing ability at birth
b) they often develop some form of sign language even if not exposed to it by others
When does language learning begin?
a) around one year after birth
b) shortly after birth
c) before birth
d) around two years after birth
c) before birth
Which of the following best describes child-directed speech (CDS), or infant-directed speech (IDS)?
a) an infant's first speech-like sounds occurring at 6 weeks
b) a child's first words
c) a type of speech adults and older children use with infants and small children
d) the sounds and words infants and children use to gain the attention of adults
c) a type of speech adults and older children use with infants and small children
True or False: Motherese, or any form of child-directed speech, is necessary to develop language.
Falso, there's evidence that this directed speech may help with the speed of acquisition, however, it's not required
The word bananas has how many morphemes?
a) one
b) two
c) three
d) four
b) two
In the phonemic restoration effect, what happens when a cough or other sound is dubbed in over a missing phoneme?
a) participants don't notice the cough
b) participants don't notice the missing phoneme
c) participants notice the missing phoneme
d) participants don't notice the missing phoneme or the cough
b) participants don't notice the missing phoneme
The fact that we do not pause between words in a sentence presents a challenge to what part of language processing?
a) phonemic restoration effect
b) speech segmentation
c) McGurk effect
d) phonological ambiguity
b) speech segmentation
The fact that we do not pause between words in a sentence presents a challenge to what part of language processing?
a) decide whether a string of letters is a real word or not
b) define the meaning of words
c) recognize words in strings of letters
d) decide if a word is a verb, noun, adjective...
a) decide whether a string of letter is a real word or not
What are homphones?
a) words that sound similar
b) words that sound exactly the same
c) words that are spelled similarly
d) words that are spelled exactly the same
b) words that sound exactly the same
Using the lexical decision task, what did Swinney (1979) find about the activation of different meanings of a word?
a) we do not activate multiple meaning of the word
b) we activate multiple meanings for a very short period of time
c) we activate multiple meanings for as long as the information is in short-term memory (15-30 seconds)
d) we only activate both meanings of a word if the context is ambiguous
b) we activate multiple meanings for a very short period of time
What is the name of the principle that states that we tend to attach incoming words to the phrase we are currently processing, rather than assuming they belong to a different phrase that is still coming up?
a) late closure
b) parsing
c) lexical decision
d) parsing closure
a) late closure
What measure did Trueswell and colleagues (1994) use to see whether participants had to go back and reanalyze sentences that contained parsing ambiguity?
a) verbal reports
b) fMRI
c) the lexical decision task
d) eye tracking
d) eye tracking
Tanenhaus et al. (1995) presented participants with sentences about apples and towels. What kind of information did they find affected parsing behavior?
a) visual information
b) auditory pitch
c) speed of talking
d) particular order of words
a) visual information
Prosody refers to which property of word production?
a) speed of pronounciation
b) semantic content
c) pattern of pitch
d) location
c) pattern of pitch
Consider the sequence "Regy gave Steve an apple. He ate it quickly." You probably interpreted "he" as referring to Steve. What kind of inference is this?
a) anaphoric inference
b) casual inference
c) phonemic inference
d) elaborative inference
a) anaphoric inference
Consider the sentence "Emily made a cake for Mike's birthday. She left the oven on." If you had assumed that Emily baked the cake in the oven in the first sentence (note: it just says she made the cake), what kind of inference would this be?
a) elaborative
b) causal
c) backward
d) anaphoric
a) elaborative
Which of these best describes the core idea of linguistic relativity?
a) the language one speaks does NOT affect other areas of cognition
b) the language one speaks affects other areas of cognition
c) other areas of cognition affect language mechanisms
d) other areas of cognition do NOT affect language mechanisms
b) the language one speaks affects other areas of cognition
The process of imagining the future uses which of the following?
a) a creative imagination
b) long-term memory to predict what's probale of the future
c) a high IQ; individuals with lower IQ are unable to do this
d) all of the above
b) long-term memory to predict what's probale of the future
The primacy effect is oftern attributed to _________.
a) short-term memory
b) long-term memory
c) sensory memory
d) implicit memory
b) long-term memory
The recency effect is attributed to _________.
a) long-term memory
b) sensory memory
c) working memory
d) none of the above
c) working memory
Sally begins to prepare her lunch at 12:00 pm and realizes that she can't remember what she had for breakfast. This highlights a retrieval failure from _________.
a) working memory
b) short-term memory
c) long-term memory
d) sensory memory
c) long-term memory
According to levels of processing theory, information encoded in terms of ______ will be best remembered.
a) sound
b) meaning
c) case
d) none of the above
b) meaning
Mary Ann is studying for her cognition class. She decides to rewrite her notes. Mary Ann is using which of the following to help her study?
a) shallow levels of processing
b) deep levels of processing
c) encoding specificity
d) transfer appropriate processing
a) shallow levels of processing
Craig is preparing to study for his lifespan development course and decides that he will generate examples for each of the terms so that he can better remember them. He is using _____________.
a) shallow levels of processing
b) deep levels of processing
c) encoding specificity
d) transfer appropriate processing
b) deep levels of processing
We tend to remember the first and last thing we are introduced to; this is referred to as the _____________.
serial position effect
The best summary of the conclusions of Baddeley's diving experiement is that memory is best _____________.
a) initially learned on land
b) initially learned under water regardless of testing condition
c) initially learned on land and then tested under water or initially on water and then tested on land
d) initially learned on land and then tested on land or initially learned under water and tested under water
d) initially learned on land and then tested on land or initially learned under water and tested under water
Amnesiac patients like Clive Wearing and H.M. demonstrate
a) impaired long-term memory; intact short-term memory
b) impaired short-term memory; intact long-term memory
c) impaired short-term and long-term memory
d) intact short-term and long-term memory
a) impaired long-term memory; intact short-term memory
Which type of memory specifically involves the experience of "mental time travel"?
a) procedual
b) episodic
c) semantic
d) implicit
b) episodic
Which type of memory is least prone to forgetting?
a) procedural
b) episodic
c) semantic
d) none of the above
a) procedural
The formation of very durable long-term memories specifically involves which brain structure?
a) amygdala
b) hippocampus
c) temporal lobe
d) thalamus
b) hippocampus
The primacy effect could be considered to be in ______ memory.
a) short-term
b) long-term
c) sensory
d) iconic
b) long-term
While studying for her environmental science class, Shirley tries to make connections with the material and apply it to other contexts. Conversely, Marla is studying the same material by simply re-reading her notes. The two study techniques differ by _____________.
a) their motivation
b) the amount of time they're spending on it
c) their levels of processing
d) the amount of short-term memory activation
c) their levels of processing
If Shirley and Marla's environmental science test is an essay test, which student will most likely perform better and have better recall?
Shirley
Every day in psychology class, Riley sits next to a student that brings a strong cup of coffee. The smell is very noticeable to Riley. When it comes time to take the test, Riley notices that the student with coffee is late. While taking the test, Riley struggles remembering a difficult term but is pleasantly surprised when the coffee student shows up with her usual cup of coffee. After smelling the coffee, the answer suddenly returns to her. Having the coffee smell present during both encoding and testing may have helped due to ______.
a) transfer-appropriate processing
b) state-dependent learning
c) encoding specificity
d) long-term potentiation
c) encoding specificity
You wake up in a sad mood. This persists all day, and you realize that it is very easy for you to think of several negative experiences that have happened to you in the last month, which also created a sad mood. Your ability to more easily recall those sad events while you are in a sad mood exemplifies _____________.
state-dependent memory
Your friend Carla is getting ready to go to the Bahamas for a beach vacation. You have never been to the beach but you have a good idea of what her vacation will be like. This is an example of which type of memory?
a) episodic
b) declarative
c) gist-type
d) semantic
d) semantic
Knowing how to ride a bike is an example of ______ memory, but remembering you dad teaching you to ride a bike is an example of ______ memory.
implicit; episodic
Classical conditioning is an example of which type of memory?
a) episodic
b) implicit
c) declarative
d) semantic
b) implicit
Patient S.M. had congenital damage to her ______ and could not learn fear conditioning.
a) frontal lobes
b) amygdala
c) parietal lobe
d) occipital lobes
b) amygdala
Learning information requires synaptic changes in order to make memories last long-term and become enduring. This process is called ______.
a) long-term durability
b) encoding
c) consolidation
d) plastic potentiation
c) consolidation
Which of the following statements is a problem for the classical view of categorization?
a) people can agree on a set of features that define "grandfathers"
b) people don't find it unusual if asked to rate how "birdy" a bat is
c) people can give typicality ratings to well-defined categories
d) people are pretty good at categorizing even unusualy category members
b) people don't find it unusual if asked to rate how "birdy" a bat is
Which of the following reaction time data sets illustrates the typicality effect for the bird category, given the following three trials?
Trial 1: A pumpkin is a fruit.
Trial 2: A boysenberry is a fruit.
Trial 3: An apple is a fruit.
a) 583: 518: 653 ms
b) 518: 583: 653 ms
c) 583: 653: 518 ms
d) 653: 583: 518 ms
c) 583: 653: 518 ms
The _________ proposes that concepts consist of separate representations of experienced examples of the category.
a) prototype theory
b) exemplar theory
c) categorical theory
d) classical approach
b) exemplar theory
Superordinate concepts are _________, while subordinate concepts are _________.
a) informative but not distinctive; distinctive and informative
b) distinctive but not informative; informative but not distinctive
c) distinctive and informative; neither distinctive nor informative
d) neither distinctive nor informative; distinctive and informative
b) distinctive but not informative; informative but not distinctive
Which term below is most closely associated with semantic networks?
a) distributed processing
b) spreading activation
c) prototype formation
d) family resemblance
b) spreading activation
Which principle is illustrated by the observation that most people are able to recognize a variety of examples of chairs even though no single category member may have all of the characteristic properties of “chairs” (e.g., most chairs have four legs but not all do)?
a) family resemblance
b) prototypicality
c) spreading activation
d) semantic relatedness
a) family resemblance
Not all of the members of everyday categories have the same features. Most birds have feathers, have wings, and can fly. Penguins can't fly, but they are still categorized as birds. This poses a problem for the _________ approach to categorization.
a) classical
b) prototype
c) exemplar
d) family resemblance
a) classical
A result in which more common members of a category show a processing advantage is known as _________.
a) similarity effects
b) the family resemblance view
c) the prototype theory
d) typicality effects
d) typicality effects
Mental categories allow us to
a) predict the ways in which we should interact with new instances
b) spend more time trying to figure out what things are
c) organize our memories
d) create stereotypes and prejudices about groups of people
a) predict the ways in which we should interact with new instances
Using a _________ technique, Bartlett was among the first researchers to demonstrate that memory is _________.
a) semantic priming; fallible
b) reconstructive; malleable
c) repeated reproduction; reconstructive
d) incidental memory; inaccurate
c) repeated reproduction; reconstructive
Which term below is most closely associated with semantic networks?
a) distributed representations
b) cognitive economy
c) prototype formation
d) family resemblance
b) cognitive economy
Which of the following is NOT a property of the connectionist approach?
a) it proposes a slow learning process that eventually creates a network capable of handling a wide range of inputs
b) connectionist networks respond to being damaged in ways similar to the response that occurs in actual cases of brain damage in humans
c) before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero
d) the connectionist system can still function if it receives input that is slightly inaccurate
c) before any learning has occurred in the network, the weights in the network all equal zero
The _____________ applies to any symbol system in which one symbol is used to explain another symbol without any direct connection to the referent.
grounding problem
The observation that participants are more likely to rate an experimenter as "warm" after holding a hot cup of coffee compared to a cold cup of coffee supports which view?
a) connectionism
b) a weak form of embodied cognition
c) a strong form of embodied cognition
d) Barsalou's theory of embodied cognition
b) a weak form of embodied cognition
According to Barsalou, how is cognition grounded?
a) as a connectionist network
b) as sensorimotor neural representations
c) as symbols systems
d) as mental representations
b) as sensorimotor neural representations
Select all the characteristics that apply to theories of embodied cognition.
a) abstract
b) flexible
c) goal-driven
d) context-independent
e) context-dependent
f) amodal
b) flexible
c) goal-driven
e) context-dependent
Research by Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002) found that participants' reaction time was ______ when answering whether a target image was mentioned in a previously presented prime sentence if the picture matched the context of the prime sentence, compared to when the picture didn't match the context.
faster
Patterson and colleagues (2007) describe a patient with intact memory for the directions of how to drive to a friend's house but who forgot what sheep were when he saw them at the side of the road. What disorder did this patient have?
a) anterograde amnesia
b) retrograde amnesia
c) Alzheimer's disease
d) semantic dementia
d) semantic dementia
Semantic dementia is most frequently associated with degeneration of the _____________.
anterior temporal lobe
Probic, Jefferies, and Ralph (2010) applied TMS to the inferior parietal lobe (IPL) and found participants' naming speed for non-living things slowed down. According to the hub-and-spoke model, the IPL is _________.
a) the semantic bulb
b) a modality-specific spoke
c) particularly sensitive to damage in patients with semantic dementia
d) where sensory information is stored and processed
b) a modality-specific spoke
The ability to communicate complex ideas and share our internal thoughts, emotions, and plans for the future is called _________.
a) language
b) grammar
c) thinking
d) acquisition
a) language
The ability to combine words in novel ways is called _________.
productivity
The most fundamental difference between human and animal language is the presence or absence of a(n) _________.
a) expression
b) vocal tract
c) punctuation mark
d) grammar
d) grammar
Using Alex the parrot and Washoe the chimp as examples, it was demonstrated that animals _________ expand their communicative capabilities well beyond their natural tendencies.
a) cannot
b) can
c) need very little training to
d) might be able to
b) can
B.F. Skinner thought that language is learned through _____________.
a) specific mutations of several genes
b) the genetic code
c) punishment
d) trial and error with reinforcement
d) trial and error with reinforcement
Noam Chomsky thought that which of these basic concepts of language does not need to be learned?
a) that there are nouns and adjectives
b) that there are words, syntax, and tense
c) just that there's syntax
d) just that there are words
b) that there are words, syntax, and tense
Which of these demonstrates sign language in children who are born deaf?
a) they are unable to learn sign language at all
b) they usually develop some form of sign language even is not exposed to it by others
c) they only develop sign language if they are exposed to it by others
d) they have to go to school in order to learn sign language
b) they usually develop some form of sign language even is not exposed to it by others
The smallest unit of speech that can change the meaning of a word is a/an ______.
a) articulation
b) phoneme
c) morphene
d) speech segmentation
b) phoneme
How many morphemes are in the words "KITCHEN CHAIRS"?
3
Pollack and Picketts's (1964) study where they recorded conversations of students and spliced out individual words from the recording demonstrated that ______.
a) speech segmentation exists
b) we are very good at recognizing our own voice
c) it is easy to forget what you just said
d) context plays an important role in speech perception
d) context plays an important role in speech perception
The ______ effect involves viewing visual articulations of one phoneme while hearing the auditory signal consistent with a different phoneme.
a) phenomic restoration
b) McGurk
c) articulation
d) language comprehension
b) McGurk
During language processing, the task of figuring out where one morpheme begins and the other ends is called ______.
a) speech segmentation
b) phonemic restoration effect
c) word frequency effect
d) McGurk effect
a) speech segmentation
Words that sound the same but mean different things, such as "ate" and "eight," are called ______.
a) homphones
b) homographs
c) ambiguous words
d) arbitrary words
a) homphones
In the lexical decision task, participants ______.
a) decide if a string of letters is a word frequently used in their native language
b) decide if a string of letters is a real word or not
c) count how many phonemes there are in each word presented
d) count how many meanings a specific word has
b) decide if a string of letters is a real word or not
According to the syntax ______ approach, the parsing of a sentence is first derived based on principles of grammar alone, without regard to the meaning of the words.
first
Tanenhaus et al. (1995) tracked eye movements while participants listened to sentences about apples and towels. It was found that ______ ambiguity can be overcome by the contextual environment in which the sentence is heard.
a) prosody
b) language
c) parsing
d) phoneme
c) parsing
Recently it has been found that damage to this region does not always lead to severe speech production problems and that patients can have such speech production deficits without damage to this region.
a) temporal lobe
b) the thalamus
c) Broca's area
d) Wernicke's areas
c) Broca's area
Broca's area is located in the _________ lobe of the cortex.
frontal
Linguistic relativity is the idea that _____________.
a) language is not related to ther areas of cognition
b) language affects other areas of cognition
c) there's a relationship between linguistic behaviour and the structure of the brain
d) differences aong languages are fairly superficial
b) language affects other areas of cognition
Winawer and colleagues (2007) found, using a color matching task, that ______.
a) language does not alter perception
b) having different names for colors leads us to perceive colors as more different
c) there are not 100 different names for snow in the Inuit language
d) everyone across the world perceives blue as blue and red as red
b) having different names for colors leads us to perceive colors as more different