psychopathology
four key definitions of abnormality
Deviation from social norms
Statistical infrequency
Failure to function adequately
Deviation from ideal mental health
deviation from social norms
A person is seen as abnormal if their thinking or behaviour violates Written (explicit) Or unwritten (implicit) rules about what is acceptable
E.g. seeing a person walk around the streets with no clothes on
cultural relativism
beliefs and practices should be understood within the context of the culture they belong to rather than judged based on the standards of another culture
statistical infrequency
A behaviour as soon as abnormal if it is statistically infrequent or not seen very often in society
E.g. IQ, the majority of people scores will cluster around the average (bellshaped)
deviation from social norms, ao3
strengths: Real world application- Deviation from social norms used in clinical practice. Such norms player part in the diagnosis of schizotypal personality disorder which shows that deviation from social norms has value in psychiatry
limitation: less objectivity-Subjective nature of deciding exactly when someone's behaviour is deviated from social norms sufficiently enough to be considered abnormal
statistical infrequency ao3
strength: Objective methodology and usefulness- not influenced by personal feelings and opinions, Use a standardised methodology as it reduces any subjectivity when being used in clinical practice practices
limitation: Unhelpful labels-Labelling an individual as abnormal can be unhelpful and may contribute to a poor self image or becoming an invitation for discrimination, May cause the person more distress than the condition itself
failure to function adequately
A person is considered a normal if they are unable to cope with the demand of every day life because of personal suffering and distress
E.g. depression
deviation from ideal mental health
Behaviours are see as abnormal when there is a lack of healthy characteristics
E.g. schizophrenia
Jahoda (1958)
Suggest that abnormal behaviour should be defined by the absence of particular characteristics
Accurate perception of reality
Self actualisation
Positive attitude to oneself
Environmental mastery
Autonomy
Resisting to stress
failure to function adequately ao3
strength: Consideration of personal experience-Consider the subjective personal experiences of the patient, Consider the thoughts and feelings of the person and does not simply make a judgement
limitation: Discrimination and social control-Definition is easy to label non-standard lifestyle choices as abnormal but hard to say when someone is really failing to function and when they have simply chosen to deviate from social norms
deviation from ideal mental health ao3
strength: Positive and holistic- Definition focuses on positive and desirable behaviours, Consider the whole Person taking into account a multitude of factors that can affect their health and well-being
limiation: Unrealistic criteria high standard- There are times when everyone experiences stress and negativity very few of us attain all of Jehovah's criteria for mental health and probably none of us achieve all of them at the same time
phobias
Characterised by excessive fear and anxiety
behavioural characteristics of phobias
Avoidance- Hard to go about every day life
Panic- High levels of stress and anxiety
Endurance- Remain in the presence
emotional characteristics of phobia
Excessive and unreasonable fear- Immediate, More Intense, Shorter periods of anxiety
Anxiety- Unpleasant state of arousal, Long-term
cognitive characteristics of phobias
Selective attention to the phobic stimulus- Caused them to become fixated on the object they fear
Irrational beliefs- May hold unfounded thoughts, Can't be easily explained
Cognitive distortions- Perceptions may be inaccurate and unrealistic
behavioural approach to explaining phobias: The two process model
mower (1947)
Phobias are aquired through classical conditioning- Stimulus and response learning through repeated associations
Phobias are maintained through operant conditioning- Negative reinforcement, Behaviour is strengthened because an unpleasant consequences removed
Behavioural approach to explaining phobias: watson + rayner (1920)
Investigate whether the fear response could be learned through classical conditioning
Little Albert showed no response to white rat, They made very loud noise
Results: When they showed little Albert white rat, he cried
Conclusion: Fear response can be introduced through the process of classical conditioning, Little albert developed fear for other White furry objects (Generalised his fear)
behavioural approach to explaining phobias strengths
Research evidence supports explanation: watson + rayner (1920) Demonstrated classical conditioning, Involved in acquiring phobias in humans and that generalisation can occur to other phobic stimuli
Practical application therapy: Behaviours ideas have been used to develop treatments including systematic desensitisation and flooding, These therapies have been used to successfully treat phobias, Support for effectiveness of behaviour explanation
behavioural approach to explaining phobias limitations
Little Albert: Ethical issues
Ignores the role of cognition: Phobia is developed by a irrational thinking, Not just learning, Not taking into consideration the behaviourist explanation, CBT is more successful than behaviourist treatments, Behaviour explanation is oversimplified because it neglect cognitive processes
behavioural approach to treating phobias: Systematic desensitisation
uses counter conditioning to unlearn the maladaptive response to a situation by eliciting relaxation
By replacing The conditioned stimulus (fear) With an opposite response (relaxation)
systematic desensitisation process
1. relaxation training: Reduce the activity of the sympathetic nervous system and increased activity of the parasympathetic nervous system
2. Fear hierarchy: Ranking the phobic situation from least to most terrifying
3. Reciprocal inhibition/Gradual exposure: Exposing a patient to the phobic situation while relaxed, Two emotional states cannot coexist at the same time so the person is unable to be relaxed and anxious together
flooding
Exposing individual to the anxiety inducing stimulus immediately and directly
Safe and controlled manner
Continuous exposure, anxiety levels eventually Decrease (Subside)
Extinction- Where fear subsides completely
behaviour approach are treating phobias, Systematic desensitisation ao3
strength- More ethical than flooding: Doesn't cause the same levels of distress and can be positive and pleasant experience
limitation- Not always effective: And treating all phobias, in effective in treating evolutionary phobias, which have an innate basis
behaviourist approach to treating phobias- Flooding ao3
strengths- Cost-effective: Takes much less time in achieving positive results, Cures phobia is more quickly therefore more Cost-effective
limitation- Highly traumatic: Illicit, it's a high-level of anxiety, Sometimes a waste of time and money if patients don't engage full course of treatment, And risk that the phobia isn't treated and is reinforced
behavioural characteristics of depression
Loss of energy- Lethargic, Lack of engagement in work and education and social life
Sleep disturbance- Hypersomnia, Insomnia
Changes in appetite
Aggression and self harm
emotional characteristics of depression
Depressed lower mood- Lack of interest
Anger- Aggressive or self harming behaviour
Low self-esteem
cognitive characteristics of depression
Poor concentration- Diminished ability to concentrate, Poor decision-making
Attending to and ruminating on the negative- Fixation, Bias towards negative events
Absolutist thinking- Absolute disaster
cognitive approach to explaining depression- Becks cognitive triad (1963)
Negative views about the world-> Negative views about the future-> Negative views about oneself->
negative self schema
criticism from parents or peers
Develops in childhood through criticism or rejection
E.g. self blame schema
cognitive biases
An exaggerated or irrational thought pattern
Overgeneralisations-I failed one exam, therefore I'm going to fail all exams
catastrophising-I failed one exam, therefore I'm never gonna get a job
ellis's ABC model
Activating event
Belief
Consequences
rational and irrational
cognitive approach to explaining depression A03
Strengths: Research support- visla et al. (2016) meta-analysis, Showed relationship between a rational beliefs and psychological distress over past 60 years, Found irrational belief were positively associated with types of psychological distress, Argues that the role of cognition is important factor in explaining depression
limitation: Limited explanation- Doesn't explain origin of irrational thoughts, Unable to determine if negative irrational thoughts caused depression or whether a person depression leads to a negative mindset
cognitive approach to treating depression
CBT (Cognitive behavioural therapy)
REBT (Rational emotive behaviour therapy)
cognitive elements of CBT + Behavioural elements of CBT
Aims to identify a irrational and negative thoughts
Replace these with rational ones
Encourages patients to test their beliefs through behavioural experiments and homework
becks cbt and ellis's rebt process
Initial assessment
Goal setting
Identifying and challenging irrational thoughts
Homework, e.g. meeting a friend
rebt
developed ABC model (Include includes dispute and effective)
cognitive approach to treating depression strengths
Cost vs drug therapy: Doesn't come with the negative side effects associated with medication (Getting the correct dosage level) CBT doesn't have these difficulties
More empowering: Antidepressant medication of passive in the process of drug medication. Whereas CBT- Patients actively working to challenge and changed their own thoughts, Gives patient sense of control over their depression
cognitive approach to treating depression limitations
Issues with engagement- Motivation: CBT requires motivation, Severe depression may not engage in CBT, Treatment will be ineffective and treating these patients, Cannot be used as the sole treatment for severely depressed patients who often lack motivation to attend therapy
over emphasis on the role of cognition: As the primary cause of depression, CBT's criticised for not taking into account the other factors such as social circumstances E.g. domestic violence, which might contribute to depression
behavioural characteristics of OCD
Compulsions are repetitive E.g. tidying
Compulsions reduce anxiety E.g. hand washing
Reduced social activity E.g. emptying rubbish bins
emotional characteristics of OCD
Anxiety and distress
Accompanying depression
Guilt and disgust
cognitive characteristics of OCD
Obsessive thoughts
Insight into/Understanding of excessive anxiety E.g. aware their compulsions are not rational
genetic explanations to explaining OCD
COMT gene
SERT gene
COMT gene
Associated with production of catechol-o-methyl-transferase
One variation of the COMT gene results in higher levels of dopamine
1. ocd= Reduced Activity of COMT gene
2. ocd= reduced level of enzyme catechol-o-methyl-transferase
3. Enzyme doesn't break down dopamine
SERT gene
Linked to serotonin, Affects Transport
Transportation levels can cause issues with lower levels of serotonin to be active in the brain
Neuro explanations to explaining OCD
Dopamine
Serotonin
Abnormal brain circuits
dopamine
High levels associated with OCD and compulsive behaviour
serotonin
Regulates mood, Low levels are associated with anxiety, depression, and OCD
abnormal brain circuits
Two brain regions implicated in OCD: Orbitofrontal cortex And basal ganglia
Orbitofrontal cortex involved in perception of the world, Convert sensory information into thoughts and actions
'worry circuit'
Genetic explanations to explain explaining OCD ao3
strength: Research support for family studies- nestadt et al. (2000) Individuals with 1st° relative with OCD are up to 5 times more likely to develop it
limitation: Lower levels of serotonin because of mutation of SERT gene-This knowledge can lead to drugs being prescribed to correct this imbalance
Neuro explanations to explaining OCD ao3
strength: Research support for the Orto frontal cortex- beucke et al. (2013) Investigated OCD patients on medication or not, Found that non-medicated OCD patient demonstrated greater activity in connectivity in orbitofrontal cortex
limitation: Alternate explanation- Diathesis stress model suggests the environmental factors can trigger or increase the risk of developing OCD e.g. traumatic event in the past
biological approach to treating OCD- transmission
The action potential propagate down the axon of the pre-synaptic neuron, When the action potential reaches the terminal button, it stimulates the vehicles to release chemical neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
The chemical neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic left and bind to the receptor molecules on the postsynaptic neuron
Re-uptake an absorption in transmission
Physicals are replenished with excess chemical neurotransmitters
Higher concentration of serotonin at the receptor molecules intensifies the stimulation of the next action potential
SSRI- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor- Inhibit replenishment and increase serotonin in synaptic cleft
treatments for OCD
Drug therapy- OCD= Lower levels of serotonin in the brain, choy and schneier (2008)- SSRIs Improve mood and reducing anxiety, Increases level of serotonin, preventing it from being reabsorbed into the pre-synaptic membrane, Improves the concentration of the brain chemical of the receptor site
Anti-anxiety drugs- benzodiazepines (BZs) Enhance the action of the neurotransmitter GABA= Tells neurons to slow down which reduces anxiety making you more relaxed
biological approach to treating OCD ao3
strengths: Cost-effective and less demanding- A drugs are more cost-effective solution for treating OCD, Psychological treatments require a patient to be motivated, Drugs are non-disrupted to everyday life and more successful for patients who lack motivation
limitation: Side effects- Possible side-effects, e.g. indigestion, insomnia, hallucinations, BZs Are renowned for being highly addictive leading to increased aggression and long-term memory impairments