RESEARCH
Making and deriving understanding about the world and ourselves. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Science as a Process
a type of hypothesis that has no significant difference or relationship
Null hypothesis
type of hypothesis that there is a significant difference or relationship
Alternative hypothesis
Te variable Tha is manipulated or controlled by the researchers
Independent variable
The variable that is measured or observed as the outcome
Dependent variable
The variable that is kept constant or unchanged
Control variable
Represent categories or groups with no inherent order or ranking (gender, male/female)
Nominal variable
Represent categories or groups with some inherent order or ranking
Ordinal variable
Have equal intervals between values. Can be measured on a continuous scale without a true zero point
Interval variable
Have equal intervals between values. Have true zero point
Ration Variable
Have a countable and finite set of possible values. Often represented by whole numbers or integers
Discrete variables
Can take on an infinite number of values within a certain range. Often measured on a continuous scale and can have decimal places
Continuous variables
A group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment. Provided baseline for comparison
Control group
A group in an experiment that receives the treatment. Assess the effect of the treatment
Experimental group
A concise summary of the research that provides an overview of the study from objectives to recommendation
Abstract
Sets the context for the research by discussing the background imformation, stating the SOP and so on
Chapter 1; Introduction
Summarizes and analyzes relevant existing research and literature related to the topic
Chapter 2: Literature review
describes the research design, participants or subjects, data collection methods and so on
Chapter 3: Methodology
present the findings of the study and the interpretation and analysis of the results
Chapter 4: Presentation and Analysis of Data
Summarizes the main findings of the study and recommendation for future studies and researchers
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendation
Manipulates variables to establish cause and effect relationship by randomly assigning participants to different groups and controlling for confounding factors
Experimental
Similar to experimental design but lacks random assignment of participants, making it less robust in establishing causal relationship
Quasi-experimental
Examines the relationship between variables without manipulating them, assessing the degree and direction of association
Correlational
Collects data from a diverse group of participants at a single point in time to understand relationships or differences across variables
Cross sectional
collects Data from the same participants over an extended period to track changes,trends, or development of variables over time
Longitudinal
Observes and describes phenomena without manipulating variables, providing a detailed account of the characteristics of a population or phenomenon
Descriptive
In depth examination o a single individual, group, or situation to gain insights into complex phenomena and generate detailed qualitative data
Case study
Explores and describes the lived experiences and perception of individual
Phenomenology
Involves immersion in a social or cultural setting to observe and document the beavaiours, interactions, and cultural practices of a specific group
Ethnography
Aims to develop theories or conceptual frameworks based on systematic analysis of data
Grounded theory
exploring and analyzing the stories and narratives of individuals or groups
Narrative research
Involves a two ohase approach, where one method (quality or quanti) is conducted first, followed by the other method
Sequential Mexed method
Involves the simultaneous collection and data analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data
Concurrent Mixed method
Each element in the population has an equal chance of being selected
Simple random sampling
Elements are selected at regular intervals from an ordered list
Systematic sampling
Population is devided into subgroups based on certain characteristicis, and radm samples are drawn from each stratum
Stratified sampling
population is devided into clusters, and a random sample of clusters is selected
cluster sampling
Elements are selected based on their convenient accessibility to the researcher
Convenient sampling
Specific elements are purposely chosen based on their relevance to the research question or expertise of the reseacher
Purposive sampling
Initially selected participants recruit additional participants who meet he study criteria
Snowball Sampling
Describes and summarizes the main features of a dateset or sample. (mean, median, mode)
Descriptive statistics
Making inferences or drawing conclusions about a population based on a sample
Inerential statistics
arithmetic average, highest reliability, easily affected by outliers
Mean
Middle score, positional, most reliable when there are extreme scores
Median
Most frequent in the distribution and can have multiple values. Not affected by outliers
Mode
Simplest measure of variability and has highest value-lowest value
Range
average of the squared differences from the mean and provides a measure of the variability in the dataset
Variance
Deviation from the mean. Most stable measure of variability and square root of the variance
Standard deviation
Any ooof the99 values which divides data points into 100 parts. Clarifies the interpretation of scores on standardized tests
Percentile
Divides the number of data points into 10 parts. D1 at the lowest and D10 at the highest
DEcile
Divides the number of data points into four parts.Q1 at the lowest and Q4 at the highest
Quartile
Bell-shaped curve , singlepeak, unimodal, symmetrical
Normal distribution
Longer right tail, skewed to the right, most scores are below mean
Positively skewed
Longer left tail, skewed to th eleft. Most of the scores are above the mean
Negatively skewed
Shows an excess kurtosisofzero or closet zero. More or less the normal distribution
Mesokurtic
indicates a positive excess kurtosis. Slender with faster tails. indicates a sharp peak
Leptokurtic
shows a negative excess kurtosis. Broad with thinner tails. Indicates flat peak
Platykurtic
Determines if there is a significant difference between groups
T-test
Compares means of multiple groups
Analysis of Variance
Examines the association between categoral variables
Chi-squuare test
Models the relationship between variables
Refression analyis
Measures the strength and direction of relationship
Correlation Analysis
Controls for covariates while comparing groups
Analysis of Covariance
Compares distribution of two independent groups
Mann-Whitney U Test
Compares distributions of more than two independent groups
Kruskal-Wallis Test
Graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data. Uses bars to depict the frequency of data within specified intervals
Histogram
Use rectangular bars to compare categories or groups. shows the relationship between a categorical variable and numerical variable
Bar chart
Circular chart divided into sectors. Represents a proportion or percentage of a whole
Pie Chart
Displays data as a series of data points connected by straight lines. Used to show trends or changes over time
Line chart
Uses dots or markers to represent the values of two variables. Shows the relationship or correlation between the two variables
Scatter Plot
Graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data through quartiles. Displays the median, quartiles, and outliers of the data
Box plot
Combination of a bar chart and a line chart. Presents data in descending order of frequency or magnitde, showing cumulative percentage
Pare to Chart