Psycology Midterm #2
What is Biological Psychology
Studies the relationship between the nervous system and behaviour (researchers)
What is Phrenology
- Attempt to map the brain to psychological characteristics
- Skull shape doesnt reflex cognitive functions and personalitiy
What is a Neuropsychology tests
-assess cognitive function in people with brain damage
-accommodate language and culture
what is a lesion
damage to the of the brain that results is destruction of neurons
What is a Electroencephalograph (E E G)
Measures electrical activity via electrodes on the skull
what is the advantage of Electroencephalograph (E E G)
Excellent temporal resolution
Excellent at studying when brain activity is changing
Can measure brain activity within milliseconds
Non invasive
What is the disadvantage of Electroencephalograph (E E G)
Poor spatial resolution
Tough to pinpoint specific areas of activation
What is Neuroimaging
See brain structure, function or both
What is computed tomography (CT) (cat scan)
multiple X-rays to construct a 3D image of the brain
what is resonance imaging (MRI)
- magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure
- measures the release of energy from water in biological tissues following exposure to a magnetic field
- MRI superior to CT for detecting soft tissue, like brain tumours
what is functional imaging
measures changes in brain activity in response to stimuli
what is Positron emission tomography (PET)
- Measures consumption of glucose-like molecules to give a picture of neural activity
-Requires the injection of radioactive glucose-like molecules
- Do little to no harm
what is functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and the advantages and disadvantages
- Uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity using changes in blood oxygen level
- Brain cells use more oxygen when they’re working
- Gold standard in functional brain-imaging research
- During rest the brain is still active and has spontaneous thought and daydreaming
- Advantage, excellent spatial resolution
-Disadvantage, poor temporal resolution
what is Magnetoencephalography (M E G)
- Measures tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain
- Patterns of activity on the skull’s surface
- Excellent temporal resolution (within milliseconds)
- Fairly good spatial resolution, but not as good for deeper parts of the brain
what is the substraction technique
- Images shown in neuroimaging studies show activating of experimental condition after subtracting activity of control condition
- A comparison of activity, not direct activity
what is Exciting vs inhibiting
When areas of the brain are active, we don’t always know whether the neurons are exciting or inhibiting other neurons
what is Neuro-seduction
when people think brain scans are more scientific than they actualy are
what is it called when the evidence from brain imaging studies is derived
unwarranted confidence
what is brain stimulation (DBS) and its risks
- Modify brain function through electrical stimulation from implanted electrodes
- Potential treatment for disorders (e.g. Parkinson’s Disease, - Depression and more)
- Invasive and risky
- Requires surgery on the brain
- Risks: infection, hemorrhaging, replacement of battery
what is Transcranial magnetic stimulation (T M S)
- Applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull
- Can either enhance or interrupt brain function
- Non-invasive
- Can infer causation (directly manipulate brain areas)
- May provide relief for depression and decrease auditory hallucinations
how much of our brains do we use
10%
what is the 10% myth
- May originate from William James -> most people fulfill only a small percentage of their intellectual potential
- Losses of even small areas of certain parts of the brain can cause devastating, often permanent losses of function
- No investigator using brain stimulation or neuroimaging techniques has ever uncovered any consistently silent areas
what is defult mode network
when resting, the brain is still active
what are neurons and how many do we have
-brain cells that have communication with eachother
- 86 billion neurons with 160 trillion synaptic connection between them- van-halifax 5x
- contains genetic material and the parts necessay to make proteins
what is the electified mambrane
-outer covering of the cell that enables it to exchange electrical and chemical signals with other neurons
-Communication with other neurons
what is the cell body (soma)
- Centre of neuron; builds new cell components
- Contains nucleus (where proteins are manufactured)
- Serious damage to this part is fatal for the neuron
what are dendrites
branchlike extensions that receive information
what are axons
"tails" that transit information
what are synaptic vesicles
- spherical sack containing neurotransmitters
- knob at the of the axon
what are neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that allow neuron-neuron communication
what is a synaptic cleft
space between neurons through which neurotransmitters travel
what are glial cells
- glue
- 1:1 ratio with neurons
- play a rold in psychological functioning
- Astroglia and aligodedroglia
what is a astrocytes
-Shaped like a star
-most abundant type of glial cell
-increase reliability of neuronal transmission
-Found in blood-brain barrier -> a protective shield of blood vessels that insulates the brain from infection
what is Oligodendrocytes and myelin sheath and multiple sclerosis
-Promote new connections and produce the myelin sheath around axons
-insulates axons and speeds the transmission of electrical signals down the length of the axon
-Wrapper around axons
-Multiple Sclerosis -> deterioration of Myelin sheath
Signals can’t travel down axon as efficiently
what is neuronal membrane
-has electric potential,neurotransmitters can change this potential
what is resting potential
membrane potential when the neuron is not being stimulated or inhibited
what is action potential in neuronal membrane
-electrchemical impulse travelling down the membrane that results in the neurotransmitter is released
- how neurons communicate
-requires stimulation to threshold of excitation
-Abrupt waves of electric discharge triggered by a change in charge inside the axon
-This is the neuron “firing,” all-or-none response
-Neurons either fire or do not
-Originates near cell body and travels down the axon to the axon terminal, triggering neurotransmitter release
-Neurons can fire 100 to 1,000 times per second
-In between firings, there is a very brief absolute refractory period
-Absolute refractory period -> Brief interval during which another action potential can’t occur
-The longer the axon, the more limited their maximal firing rate is
what is neurotransmission
-Communication inside neurons is electrical, but communication between neurons is chemical
-When neurotransmitters are released, they bind with receptor sites of the next neuron
-Lock and key -> Certain neurotransmitters fit in certain receptor sites
-This process is halted by reuptake, when neurotransmitters go back into the axon terminal
-synaptic vesicle reabsorbs the neurotransmitter
-Some neurotransmitters excite while others inhibit cells
-Each neurotransmitter has a specific role and function in brain and body function
what is glutamate and GABA
-in the central nervous system
-learning and memory
-excitatory and increases the chance of neurons will communicate
-toxic in highdoses, may contribute to schizophrenia and other mental disorders
-inhibitory, dampening neural activity
what is acetylcholine and what blocks it
-influences arousal, selective attention, sleep and memory
-connects to muscles that release acetylcholine and triggers movement
-benadryl, helps you sleeo and blocks acetylcholine
what is a monoamines and what it includes and its function
-contains one amino acid
- norepinephirine (brain arousal, mood, hunger, sleep. amphetamine and meth)
-dopamine (motor function and reward, parkinsons and schizophrenia)
-Serotonin (mood, temp, regulation, aggression and sleep cycles, treatment and depression)
what are anandamines and its functions
-eating, motivation, memory and sleep
-binf the same receptors as THC (weed, munchies and sleepliness)
what are neuropeptides
-short strings of amino acids
-endorphins, relieves pain (morphine)
-some regulate hunger others learning and memory
what are psychoactive drugs
interact neurotransmitter systems and affect mood, arousal and behaviour
what are agonists
-increases activity of the neurotransmitter system
-opiotes (codeine and morphine), mimic endorphin
- some drugs block reuptake
what are antagonists
-decreases activity in neurotransmitters
-dopamine blockers for schizophrenia
-fake neurotransmitters that bind to receptor sites but dont exert the effect
what is neural plasticity
-ability in the nervous system to change
-highest when we are babies
-not hardwires and can change overtime
-different areas of the brain have different time frames for plasticity
what 4 ways do neurons change during develpoment
1. growth of dendrites and axons
2. synatogenisis, formation of new synapses
3. pruning, consisting of death of certain neurons and the retraction of axons to remove connections that arent useful (70% die off)
4. myelination, the insulation of axons with myelin sheath
what are Binocular cues
rely on 2 eyes, left and right eyes transmit different info
what is convergence
-nearby objects make our eye muscles to turn our eyes inwards
-judge depth
what is potentiation
-strengthening of existing synaptic connections
-neurotransmitters released into synapses produce a stronger and more prolonged response from neighbouring neurons
what is a stem cell and why is it contoversial
-A cell, often originating in embryos, that has the capacity to differentiate into a more specialized cell
-Stems cells have the capacity to make any cell, even neurons
-Researchers can implant stem cells directly into the host’s nervous system and induce them to grow and replace damaged cells
-Controversial -> Some people believe these cells are an early form of human life
what is neurogenesis
generation of new neurons
what is the central nervous system (CNS) and whats ut called when the nerves are outside
- sensory info goes in and decisions come out
-includes brain and spinal cord
-controls mind and behaviour- nerves out the CNS are called the perpheral nervous system
cerebral cortex and what are the 4 parts
-outermost part of the forebrain
- analyses sensory info
- higher brain function
- frontal lobe
-parential lobe
-occipital lobe
-temporal lobe
cerebral hemisphere and what connects it
-preforms highly integrated functions
-corpus callosum connets the 2 parts with fibers that communicate
what is lateralization
rely on one side of the brain then the other
what happens in the left hemisphere
language skills
reading writing
phonology
motion detection
facial expression
what happens in the right hemisphere
course language skills
simple speech and writing
tone of voice
perceptual grouping
face perception
is it a myth that some people are left brained and some are right brained
yes, corpus collosum keeps left and right hemisphere communicating
frontal lobe and its areas
motor function
language
movement
Profrontal cortex, thinking planning, language
broncas area, speech production
motor cotex, body movement
Phineas gage and what happened
-Railroad foreman in 1848 in Vermont
-Tamping iron exploded and thrust into his head
-Destroyed most of his left prefrontal cortex
-Remarkable behavioral and personality changes following injury
-“No longer Gage”
parietal lobe
-Upper middle part of cerebral cortex
-Specialized for touch and perception
-Communicates information to the motor cortex every time we reach, grasp, or move our eyes
somoatosensory and what lobe is it in
sensitive to pressure, pain and temperature
temporal lobe and where is it
lower part of the cerebral cortex
hearing
understand language
long term memory
autobigraphical memories
wernickes area and the lobe its in
Temporal lobe
speech
language
comprehension
auditory cortex and the lobe its in
temporal lobe
hearing
fusiform face area and the lobe its in
temporal lobe
recognizing the configuration of features that match the objects (faces)
occipital lobe and location
back of the brain
visual cortex, dedicated to seeing
cortical hiertarchies and association meaning
info from primary-association cortex
association, through all 4 lobess, intergrates sensory to preform complex functions (size, shape, colour and location)
limbic system
emotional centre
smell
motivation
memory
thalamus
relays info from the sense organs to primary sensory cortex
hypothalamus
controls internal bodily states
4 Fs (feeding, fighting, fleeing an fucking)
amygdlala
fear
excitment
arousal
hippocampus and what happens when its damaged
spactial memory
damage causes inability to form new memories
brain stem and location
back of the brain
connects cerebral cortex and spinal cord (relat station)
basic bodily function
midbrain and where is it
brain stem
movement
traching visual stimuli
reflexes triggered by sound
pons and where is it
brain stem
connects cerebellum and triggers dreams
medulla and where is it
brain stem
regulates
breathing
heartbeat
vital functions (puking)
reticular actuvation system and where is it and what happens when damaged
brain stem
connects forebrain and cerebrak cortex
arousal
damage can cause coma
interneurons and where its located
spinal cord
send messages to nearby neurons
connect sensort and motor nerves without going to the brain
reflexes and where its located
spinal cord
automatic motor responses to sensory stimuli
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) and its 2 branches
-nerves outside th ecentral nervous system
-somatic nervous system, conveys info from the CNS to the muscles in the body controlling and coordinating voluntary movement
-auntomatic nervous system, controls involuntary actions of organs and glands
sympathetic nervous system
-active durning arousal
-fight or flight response
-increased heart rate, breathing and sweating
parasympathetic nervous system
- rest and digestion
- opperates when there is no threat
genes
-composed of DNA, containing everything a cell needs to reproduce
-genotype, gene set we have
-phenotype, obersavable traits
-dominant, mask other genes
-recessive, masked by other genes
-epigentic, gene and expression can be motified throughout life
adaptations and fitness
-make organism better suited for the enviroment
-capacity to survive and reproduce
evolution of the brain
-human and apes share common ancestor from 6-7 million years ago
-human brains trippled in size and changed the cerebral cortex
relative brain size
-size of brain proprotional to size of body
-dolphins and apes have large relative brain size
- they have more complec social networks
behavioural genetics and heritabliltiy
-studies the relative impact of nature and nurture on psychological traits
-estimates heritability, % of the variability in a trait across individuals due to genes
- some traits are highly heritable (height) and some are not (religous)
3 types of designs to test heritablility
1.family studies, examine whether traits rin through intact families
-families share gene and enviroment
2. twin studies, examine trait differences in monozygotic (identical) snd dizygotic(fraternal twins)
3. adoption studies, examines traits that adopted children share with adoptive vs. biological paretns
-selective placement, adopted to children are assigned to families with similar characteristics to biological families
sensation
-detection of physical energy
perception
the brains interpretation of raw sensory data
illision
-perception which does not match reality
-demonstrates the issue of naive realism
transduction
-the external stimuli converted by a sense receptor into neural activity
-the action or process of converting something and especially energy or a message into another form
sensory adaptation
-activation is highest when stimuli is first detected, then our response decline in strength
-keeps us from being overwhelmed by sensation
psychophisics
study of how we preceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics
absolute threshold
lowest level of stimuli we can detect at above chance performance (>50% of the time)
examples
- vision, a single candle 50km away
- hearing, a watch ticking 20 ft away
- smell, drop of perfume in a 3 eoom appt
-taste, teaspoom of sugar in a gallon of water
-touch, wing of fly dropped on a cheek from 1cm away
just noticable disease (JND ) and webers law
- JND,smallest amount of stimuli change humans can detect
-webers law, a constant proportional relationship between the JND and stimuli intensity
-stronger stimuli, higher JND
-weaker stimuli, lower JND
signal detection theory
-theory regarding how stimuli are detected under uncertain condition
-detecting signal in noise