Methods of Philosophizing
To think or express oneself in a philosophical manner.
Philosophizing
The philosophical study of the structures of experience and consciousness.
Phenomenology
Founder of Phenomenology
Edmund Husserl
A philosophical theory or approach which emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will.
Existentialism
First existentialist; insisted that the authentic self was the personally chosen self, as opposed to public or “herd” identity.
Kiekegaard
An existentialist; emphasizes the importance of free individual choice, regardless of the power of other people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions; argued that consciousness is such that it is always free to choose and free to negate the given features of the world.
Sartre
Branch and tradition of philosophy using analysis; characterized by an emphasis on language, known as the linguistic turn, and for its clarity and rigor in arguments, making use of formal logic and mathematics, and, to a lesser degree, the natural sciences. It also takes things piecemeal, in "an attempt to focus philosophical reflection on smaller problems that lead to answers to bigger questions.
Analytic philosophy
An interdisciplinary field which studies truth and reasoning; system or principles of reasoning applicable to any branch of knowledge or study
Logic
Reasons that support a conclusion, sometimes formulated so that the conclusion is deduced from premises.
Arguments
Seeks to characterize valid arguments informally, for instance by listing varieties of fallacies
Informal logic
Represents statements and argument patterns symbolically, using formal systems such as first order logic.
Formal logic
Applies them to philosophical problems such as the nature of meaning, knowledge, and existence
Philosophical logic
Defects that weaken arguments
Fallacies
Making assumptions about a whole group or range of cases based on a sample that is inadequate (usually because it is atypical or too small)
Hasty generalization
The arguer claims that a sort of chain reaction, usually ending in some dire consequence, will take place, but there’s really not enough evidence for that assumption
Slippery slope
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase “post hoc, ergo propter hoc,” which translates as “after this, therefore because of this.”; Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B
Post hoc (false cause)
If the two things that are being compared aren’t really alike in the relevant respects
Weak analogy
Adding strength to our arguments by referring to respected sources or authorities and explaining their positions on the issues we’re discussing
Appeal to authority
“to the people.”; the arguer takes advantage of the desire most people have to be liked and to fit in with others and uses that desire to try to get the audience to accept his or her argument. One of the most common versions is the bandwagon fallacy, in which the arguer tries to convince the audience to do or believe something because everyone else (supposedly) does.
Ad populum
“against the person” + “you, too!”; the arguer attacks his or her opponent instead of the opponent’s argument.
Ad hominem and tu quoque
An arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone.
Appeal to pity
The arguer basically says, “Look, there’s no conclusive evidence on the issue at hand. Therefore, you should accept my conclusion on this issue.”
Appeal to ignorance
First, person A states their position . Then, person B presents a distorted version of person A’s original position, while pretending that there’s no difference between the two versions. Finally, person B attacks the distorted version of person A’s position, and acts as if this invalidates person A’s original argument.
Straw man
An argument or subject that is introduced to divert attention from the real issue or problem
Red herring
Indicates that two options are opposites. It is a type of false dilemma, which uses these limited options to persuade a listener to make a faulty choice
False dichotomy
A form of circular reasoning; It occurs when the premises that are meant to support an argument already assume that the conclusion is true. If you start from a place where the conclusion being argued is already assumed true, then you’re not really making an argument at all. There is no supporting evidence
Begging the question
Sliding between two or more different meanings of a single word or phrase that is important to the argument.
Equivocation