PoK
When did Philosophy emerge?
It emerged in Ancient Greece as a discipline that sought to explain the world through reason and observation.
When did scientific knowledge begin to take shape?
It began to take shape in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.
It is a primary source of knowledge:
Scientific research.
What is Knowledge?
It refers to the set of information, ideas, and skills that an individual acquires throughout their life, allowing them to understand, interpret, and act on the world around them.
How can Knowledge be acquired?
It can be acquired differently, including personal experience, formal education, observation, reflection, communication, and research.
Two branches of Philosophy:
Gnoseology and Epistemology.
Gnoseology:
It analyzes human knowledge itself.
Epistemology:
It is called the philosophy of science, deals with analyzing scientific knowledge.
Who did say that epistemology studies scientific research, and its product is scientific knowledge?
Mario Bunge (1981).
Which are the four elements of knowledge?
Subject, object, operation, and representation.
What is the subject?
It is the person who knows.
What is the object?
It is what you want to know.
What is the operation?
It is the act of knowing; it is the psychological process necessary to get in touch with the object and obtain a representation of it.
What is the representation?
The cognitive faculty of the subject; it is so called because it somehow tries to reproduce in the mind of the subject what happens outside.
Two main conceptions about the origin of knowledge:
Empiricism and rationalism.
Empiricism:
It holds that all knowledge comes from sensory experience.
Rationalism:
It holds that knowledge comes from reason and abstract thought.
Rationalist authors:
Plato, Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Leibniz.
Empiricist authors:
John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.
Intermediate authors:
Aristotle, Francis Bacon, Immanuel Kant, and John Stuart Mill.
Some of the elements that are considered fundamental for the acquisition of knowledge are:
perception, memory, attention, imagination, and language.
Perception:
It allows us to grasp information from the world through our senses.
Memory:
It allows us to store and retrieve that information.
Attention:
It allows us to focus the mind on certain stimuli or aspects of the environment.
Imagination:
It allows us to create a mental representations of objects or situations that are not present in the real world.
Language:
It allows us communication with others to express ideas or thoughts.
Philosophical knowledge:
Focuses on deep, abstract understanding of the world.
Religious knowledge:
It is based on the belief in a supreme being.
Everyday knowledge:
It refers to knowledge acquired through daily experience.
Mythical knowledge:
This is based on the legends and myths of different cultures.
Scientific knowledge:
It focuses on understanding the world through systematic observation, experimentation, and hypothesis testing.
Mathematical, logical knowledge:
It is acquired through processes of abstraction, consists of learning logical principles.
Scientific knowledge is distinguished by the following:
Objective, verifiable, systematic, and precise.
Objective (in scientific knowledge):
It is based on verifiable data and facts, which makes it impartial.
Verifiable ( in scientific knowledge):
It can be verified through repeated experiments and observations.
Systematic (in scientific knowledge):
It is obtained through a methodical process of research and analysis.
Precise (in scientific knowledge):
It is presented clearly and concisely.
Universal (in scientific knowledge):
Valid anywhere, anytime, and not limited to a specific cultural or historical context.
Explanatory (in scientific knowledge):
It seeks to interpret natural phenomena coherently and systematically.
Predictive (in scientific knowledge):
It allows making forecasts about future phenomena.
Fallible (in scientific knowledge):
Always subject to review and improvement and may be refuted or corrected by new data and discoveries.
Science:
It can be defined as a systematic set of empirical, theorical, and methodological knowledge that is acquired and organized objectively and rigorously to understand and explain the natural and social phenomena of the universe.
Two types of sciences:
Formal sciences and factual sciences.
Formal sciences:
They are those that are based on logical and abstract reasoning.
Factual sciences:
They are those that are based on empirical observation and experimentation.
Factual sciences are classified as follows:
Natural Sciences and Social Sciences.
They focus on studying natural phenomena, such as physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and astronomy, etc:
Natural sciences.
They are responsible for studying human behavior and social relations, such as sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, and politics:
Social Sciences.
Language:
It is an essential tool for comunication between living beings.
It is fundamental to science, making it possible to establish causal relationships and deduce consequences from premises:
Logical reasoning.
Logic:
Discipline that studies the ways of thinking and the rules that govern correct reasoning.
Thinking:
It is the human ability to form ideas, concepts, and judgements from sensory or memory information.
Reasoning:
It is the mental process that uses logical rules to conclude from previous information.
Basic elements of logic:
Concepts, propositions, judgements, arguments, inferences, connectives, and quantifiers.
Concept:
An abstract idea that represents a class of objects, events, or relationships.
Judgement or proposition
Proposition affirmed or denied about an object or a subject.
Quantity judgements:
Universal judgments, private judgments, and unique judgments.
Quality judgments:
Affirmative judgments and negative judgments.
Modality judgments:
Categorical judgments, and hypothetical judgments.
Connectives:
Words or symbols that are used to join propositions (and, or, if...)
Argument:
Series of judgments that are presented to support or refute a conclusion.
Inferences:
Conclusions reached from a set of propositions.
Deductive reasoning:
It goes from the general to the specific.
Inductive reasoning:
It goes from the specific to the general.
Abductive reasoning:
Particular observation.
Analogical reasoning:
Similitaries between two objects.
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning:
Generate hypothesis.
Syllogism:
It is deductive reasoning that consists of two premises and a conclusion.
Syllogism were proposed by
the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
In his work (Organon), he established the basic rules and principles of logic, including syllogism as a form of deductive reasoning.
Aristotle.
Syllogism is considered the...
most perfect form of deductive reasoning.
Syllogism basic form:
Major premise: All A is B.
Minor premise: All C is A.
Conclusion: Therefore, all C is B.
Major premise:
It is the general statement about a category of objects or subjects.
Minor premise:
It is a specific statement about an object or subject within the category established in the major premise.
Conclusion:
follows from the two previous premises.
Valid syllogism:
One in which the conclusion is necessarily deduced from the premises.
Invalid syllogism:
One in which the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises.
Logical principles:
Fundamental rules that guide human thinking and reasoning.
Non-contradiction:
Establishes that a statement cannot be true or false simultaneously.
Identity:
Determines that everything is identical to itself.
From the excluded third:
A tratement is true or false; there is no middle ground.
Causality:
Determines that every event has a cause or several causes that explain it.
By analogy:
This principle states that two things that resemble each other in one respect may have other similarities.
Fallacy:
Reasoning or argument that seems logical and convincing but is unfounded and can lead to erroneous conclusions.
Attack on the person (ad hominem) fallacy:
This fallacy occurs when the arguer is attacked instead of his argument.
Of authority (ad verecundiam) fallacy:
This fallacy is committed when an authority is appealed to rather tgan evidence to support a claim.
Hasty generalization fallacy:
This fallacy occurs when a conclusion is drawn from insufficient evidence.
Appeal to feelings fallacy:
They are those fallacies that, to convince, seek to provoke a feeling in the viewer of fear.
From the slippery slope fallacy:
This fallacy argues that an action will inevitably lead to a series of negative consequences.
Of the false dichotomy fallacy:
Fallacy that is based on presenting only two extreme options.
Strawman fallacy:
Distorting or exaggerating the opponent's argument to easily refute it.
From the request of principle:
Assume what you are trying to demonstrate as true.
Incomplete evidence fallacy:
Consists of presenting only evidence supporting an argument and omitting the evidence contradicting it.
Of false causality fallacy:
To assume that a correlation implies causality.
From the Iceman fallacy:
exceptional example to disprove a general statement.
Pseudoscience:
A set of beliefs or claims presented as scientific but lacking empirical basis or solid evidence to be considered.
Examples of Pseudoscience:
Astrology, Homeopathy, Chiropractic, etc.
Characteristics of Pseudoscience:
Lack of empirical evidence, they are not falsifiable, lack of scientific support, arguments based on logical fallacies.