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written by experts who compile information from primary sources
Also peer reviewed
written using primary and secondary
Typically aimed at the general audience for educational purposes
Not peer reviewed but fact checked
abstract
Intro
Methods
Results
Discussion
Literature cited
summary of article: background, major results, the experiment, conclusion of significance
Back ground, objectives, hypothesis, predictions, relevance
reason research was conducted, cite previous studies, context for the reader, why the reasearch is important, and what they hope to accomplish
The scientific method involved making an observation, a question from that, and a answer to the question (hypothesis)
If the hypothesis is correct what will happen in the experiment
Procedures in the reasearch, detailed enough that it can be replicated
written description of major results and trends, including figures and tables
Not interpretation of trends
States only facts, dense and concise
interpret their finding in the context of background information and more sources
Compare their findings
Significance of their work
Limitations of the study and steps for future expirments
alphabetical order of first author or appearance in text
CSE (council of scien editors)
Author (last name, first initial), year of publication, title of article, abbreviated journal name, volume: issue, page numbers
Group of individuals that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring in nature
Refers to an event that produces two or more separate species from one lineage
Occurs when populations go from a. A barrier to interbreeding (gene flow) either physically or behaviour ly
Genetic traits change over time leading to reducible isolated population even without a barrier (a new species)
when there’s a geographic barrier between population, water level dropping creating a physical barrier between two groups, they can reproduce so they diverge and form two new species
occurs when there is a behaviour caused by sexual selection (based on appeareance) or change in diet or habit, creating two species
mutation and gene flow
chnage in the gene pool over time
Occur at the nucleic acid level, mistakes during DNA replication or transcription
Also be caused by mutagens: UV radiation
1/100k bases there can be an error
Mutations may or may not be expressed by gene depends where and what it was
Mutation has to be heritable to be introduced
Movement of individuals between populations (migration) if they reproduce in their new population it is called gene flow
migrant affect the frequency of alleles (variation of particular genes) by adding, maintain or removing diversity
If gene flow is cut of these population become reproductively isolated and diverge from each other causing speciation
Selection for traits that given Advanatge and allows an individual to have more offspring
for the opposite it will be selected against these are called selective pressures
mating and selection of traits due to phsyical attributes
Human bred for particular traits in domesticated plants and animals through artificial selection
Ex. Brassica vegetables have been selectively bred to produce the variety we have today (cabbage, broccoli, kale Brussels sprouts)
change in allele frequency in a population that occurs randomly due to a “sampling effect” does not take natural selection into account
Only has an effect on a small population
Dangerous for small population because a genetically diverse popualtion is more resilient to change in their environment
uses phylogentic trees to show ho wpopulations have changed and split over time, they are all hypotheses and approximate
taxa (groups) on the tree
the common ancestor between taxa before they split
share a recent common ancestor
occur after a node where two taxa split
group that contain a common ancestor and all of its descendants
evolutionary relationships among organisms are reconstructed using molecular/ morphological data ex. character table
a hypothesis of realtionships that requires that smallest number of character changes
when a pop splits in 2, the 2 pops accumulate different mutation over time, this continous build up can be used to estimate how long the ancestors of the species split (longer time apart= more independent mutations)
To estimate how long a group diverged, you need to know how different their dna sequences are and how quickly these mutations occur
Independent line of evidence for divergences times, using morphological traits present and the age of the fossil from radiometric dating or stratigraphy
Challenges:
Fossil record is incomplete
Mutation rates vary across the genome, over time, and between groups
Lots of assumptions made
species alternating between two distinct phases: one haploid and one diploid defined by events of meiosis and fertilization
single cells that germinate and devlop into multicellular plants that produce sex cells or gametes
bear the male and female gametes that are the site of fertilization
when the spem and egg join together, which initaties the diploid phase of the life cycle, sporophyte
Visibly dominant generation in ferns and seed plants, while the gametophyte is very small and not easily seen.
Gametophyte in ferns develops and mature independently form the sporophyte, in the soil
Gametophyte in seed plants develops within special structure in the sporophyte
Ceratopteris Richardii is a homosporous fern that has two distinct phases (simple haploid gametophyte and a complex diploid sporophyte)
Two gametophyte: hermaphroditic gametophytes and male gametophytes
have both archegonia and antheridia
only have antheridia
produce eggs and produce sperm
in the presence of water flagellated sperm are released from the antheridia start to swim and seek a receptive egg
At the same time water also cause the neck on the archegonium to open and release a chemical that cause perms to swarm at the neck opening
Sperm swim down the neck and fertilize the egg
Resulting diploid zygote goes through meiosis to form a n embryo which develops into a new diploid sporophyte
an indpendent evolution of similar adaptions (similarties are analogous)
similarity in structures not derived from common ancestor
similarties shared by groups as well as their common ancestor
air plants' are plants that grow on top of other plants (typically trees) co-existing in the most harmonious, harmless way. They derive their nutrients and other vitals from the air, water, dust, and debris around them.
adapted to soil deficient in nitrogenous compounds. They trap and digest the insects to absorb mineral nutrition, particularly nitrogen.
Rainforests are dense and hyper competitive with an obscene amount of rainfall. Plants have waxy surfaces so water can drip off, rapid vertical growth to get more light .
Retaining moisture and avoiding predation faced by desert plant, what adaptions help this? Growing smaller, to preserve energy, longer roots, grow
sporopollenin: a polymer found on the exterior of charophytes protect pollen grains from temp, acid, alkali so they can live on land protected
Roots evolved in the common ancestor of seed plants, early plants formed realtionship with fungi to help them take up nutrients from the soil
The most water dependent and fragile part of their life cycle is protected, found inside sporophyte and completely rely on sporophyte
led to the success of propagates (tissues/strucutres that give rise to a new plant)
Seed contained nutrients for the the new plant and provided more protection that spores
Could survive much longer without water
Of angiosperms, improved up on the advantages of naked seeds in gymnosperms by protecting the seed form temp extremes, water, physical damage as well as preventing from germinating in poor conditions
Includes colour, appearance, texture. Can help give a a feel for the study of organism as well as major trend and patterns, can be subject to observer bias
Measurements like length, height, weight, counts. Numbers used to describe attributes of your study organism, non biased, objective.
sample size
statistical null hypothesis) test results against this hypothesis to attribute results to natural variation
probability due to Ho
the p value that means your results were significant (5% or lower)
represent how many standard units the means of two groups are apart, larger t value means the two samples are significantly different from each other . Use to see if two groups are different enough to be apart of two different population or if its a sampling error.
variance in a sample
signal, info of interest. If the means of two population are close togther than signal is week and wont have a signicant results, if its very diffe rent then its a strong signal
variance if there’s a lot of variance, then your data points are very spread out and there will be a lot of noise. Can be quieted down by a large sample size.
value from standardized table compared to t value to determine signicance . If t value is larger than reuslts aren’t due to natural variation and results are signicant and null hypothesis can be rejected.
parameter based on your sample size that helps determine the critical value. (N1-1) + (n2-1) For two small groups
Species that have specific requirements and conditions for their habitat , reduces competition but these species become very sensitive to changes in their environment, also vulnerable to habitat loss
Species associated with a broad range on environmental conditions (rats), tend to have much larger distributions, lots of completion but more flexible with environment changes
Reflected by habitat selection of an organism, the specific environmental needs of an organism withi their broad habitat.
Ex. Photosynthetic plankton rely on the sub to produce their food, so they are found close to the surface of the water, this micro habitat is photic (well lit) zones of lakes and ponds
The exact role it plays in the community and how it utilizes abiotic and biotic resources
where it eats, the range of livable temps, humidity, salinity and time of day it is up
No two organism fill up the same niche in a community, however they can overlap if there is some difference between them ex. Lizards living on the same tree, eating the same thing, up at the same time but they prefer different perches (sunny or shady branches, fence posts etc.) reducing competition
Different species that share similar environmental requirements will end up competing or them
specialist narrow this competition by feeding on something difficult to eat, or adapting to hard environment or narrowing their niche
Generalist narrow this competition by being more flexible in their diet and habitat (have a broader niche) allowing them to eat whatever
Competition for resources and mates within a population. Being smart finding for or strong enough to fight, extragavnt physical or behavioural displays during mating.
top predators or apex preadtors, carnivores that eat other carnivores and dont have predators
carnivors that eat other carnivores and are eaten by other carnivores
carnivores that eat herbivores and are eaten by other carnivores
herbiovres that eat producers (plants/photosyntehic animals)
autotrops, produce their own food
ex. plants, phytoplankton, chemsynthetic bacteria
Absorb energy from dead organisms, and waste like feces, return it to the community in the form of soil and nutrients to be used by producers
Made using trophies levels, arrows represent flow of energy, in reality many food chains overlap and intertwine in a complex network.
Diagrams that provide a simplified view of tropic interactions in a community, whole communities are too complex to show, usually just shows a handful
Producers and herbivores, this is because not everything that is eaten can be used as energy some is lost as heat and cannot be digested and then most is used up for movement and functions so only some gets turned into body made, so only 10 percent of energy in food is successfully transferred to the next trophic level.
Genus; species
genus is capitalized, whole name is italiscized or underlined
No two species has the same binomial
Ex. Ursula Arctic’s or U. Arctic
3d view, two light sources (direct light and one that goes through; transmitted light), lower magnification than compound, better for manipulating larger specimens
Condenser lens: focuses light, under plate
Objective len: little tubes that magnifies the image of the specimen
Ocular lens: magnifies the image/inverts
model organism used for research in molecular genetic and plant development bc its a small, easy to grow, self fertilizing plan with a short generation time
mutualistic association between fungi and roots of vascular plants
Benefit their host plant by increasing the functional area of the root system so it can capture more water and nutrients, increasing its tolerance to drought, high temp and acidity, providing protection from other fungi and nematodes
In return the fungi gets photosynethic products, carbs and vitamins from the plant
Fossils show that early land plants used mycorrhizal fungi instead of roots to absorb nutrients
birds, bats, flying squirrels
In order to fly or glide there need to be a large surface are like a membrane or wing
Bats achieve this with long slender digits joined with a thin membrane that extends from the fingertips to the ankles and tail (patagium), creating a large SA to trap air and create lift
Birds have highly reduced digits and create lift with rigid feathers to help create an airfoil
Bats and birds accommodate for large muscles with a keeled sternum
Gliding mammals have long limbs connected by a skin membrane to create drag and allow them to glide through the air
Bats and gliders have light slender bones and tend to be small and bird have pneumatized bone with air pocked in them as a part of their respiratory system to provide more oxygen during flight to stay in the air
dorsal, anal, caudal
tail vertebrae behind the scaral region (reduced in humans)
body cavity inbetween endodermal gut tube and mesoderm body wall; in phylum nematoda
animals that spend more time on tree than the ground
Adaptions to stop them from falling
Long limbs, opposable thumbs, claws, prehensile tails or adhesive pads (reptiles) to stop them from falling
Joints in the worst or ankle may be rotated to improve their grip
Despite a lack of limbs, many snake species have adapted this lifestyle
sac fungi, members of this diverse group are common to many marine, fresh water, terrestrial habitats
The cup shape ascocarp (fruiting body) of the ascomycete gives this species its common name: orange peel fungus
notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post anal tail
the common ancestor of all tetrapods posed basic limbs with one long bone, two paired long bones,several small, irregular bones, and long digits radiating from them
Descendant diversified and live different lifestyles so limbs evolved into different forms ex. Wing of a bird and flipper of whale
Flatworms, diverse group of dorsoventrally flattened worms
can be free living or parasitic, inhabit marine, freshwater, or even terrestrial environments
Vary in size from microscopic to 20 meters long (tape worms)
Ex. Tape worms, blood and liver flukes, and dugesia sp which is known for its regenerative abilities
thin, flat crust adheres by the margins to the substrate and cannot be removed
Set of morphological and developmental traits that characterize the anatomical organization of an animal
body symmetry, tissues, body cavities and mode of development
Roundworms are so ubiquitous that if somehow all matter in th universe was removed you would be able to see an outline of all things in a thin film of nematodes
Most are harmless our example was the turbatrix aceti (vinegar eel)
meiosis, plasmogamy, karyogamy
branchiostoma sp is a suspension feeder that burrows in the sediment to feed, v shaped muscle segments (myomeres) act against he firm notochord to move its body side to dig its way into the sediment
At the anterior end is a funnel shaped oral hooded surrounded by tentacles for sorting food particles
Cilia create a current that delivers food to the muscle lined pharynx
Water passes through pharyngeal slits into the atrium where it is dumped in the environment from the atriopore
muscular tail that extends past the anal opening
Lateral openings in the foregut (pharynx) of chordates. These slits were originally used for filter feeding. In aquatic vertebrates, these specialized for gas exchange whereas in land vertebrates they are only seen in the embryo
a longitudinal, fluid filled nerve cord that runs along the back of the body just above the notochord (spinal cord in vertebrates)
a longitudinal, endoskeltelal rod that gives strength and elasticity to the body
very broad group that contains invertebrates like sea squirts and lancelets as well as vertebrates like fish and tetrapods
Unique to echinoderms and first evolved for feeding in their non motile ancestors, in most free living groups it had become modified for locomotion allowing equivalent movement in all lateral directions
marine vertebrates; sea stars, sea urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers, brittle stars, sea lilies
Adults usually exhibit five part radial symmetry and calcareous endoskeleton made up of many small spiny plates
Similar to chordate embryos the bodies of echinoderm embryos are bilaterally symmetric; radially symmetry was secondarily derived
The reason for this shift is that ancestral echinoderms had a sedentary lifestyle that fit the radial symmetry
Echnioderms such as sea cucumbers have returned to bilateral symmetry because it fits their locomotion in a single direction
characterized by radial, intermediate cleavage, enterocoelous formation of the coelom is which the mesoderm forms from an outpocketing of the embryonic gut tube, mesodermal endoskelton, formation of the anus from the blastospore.
Found in echinodermata and chordata
Mouth forms second
characterized by spiral, determinate cleavage, schizocoelous (split) formation of the coelom and development of the mouth by the blastospore. Mouth forms first.
B3CT bilateral, triploblastic, coelomate,tagmata
B3P bilateral, TRIPLOBLASTIC, PSEUDO, no segemntation
B3C
B3C no segemntation
B3A (Acoelomate) no segmentation
R2, no segemnation or body cavity (radial diploblastic
bilateral animals have one pair of appendages per segment
Early in evolution those appendages were walking legs, but as body regions became specialized so did the appendage
Legs modified into antennae, mouthparts, claws, flaps for swimming, wings or mating structure or the appendages may be lost from son segments
Molluscs although related to annelids and arthropods are believed to split from the lineage before segmentation
The segments fuse or develop different shapes in specialized region of the body
the body then becomes divided into distinct regions; tagmata, specialized for different functions
Ex. Head tagma may specialize for consuming food, a thorax for locomotion in invertebrate or heart and lung function in vertebrates, abdomen for digestion of food and reproduction
Sometimes tagma fuse later in evolution, spiders the head and thorax are combined into a single tagma (cephalothorax)
In ticks the abdomen fused with the cephalothroax so the body had no externally visible tagmata
In some bilateral animals the body is formed by a series of segments or metamere ( repeated units down th length of an animal); metamerism
In triploblastic invertebrates without rigid skeleton, the body cavity provides structure and helps with locomotion ; hydrostatic Skelton
fluid held under pressure in the body cavity like a water ballon, gives the muscles something to push against
Main type of Skelton in nematodes and annelids
These organism have no fluid cavity between the gut and body wall, space is filled with loosely packed cells derived from mesoderm; found in platyhelminthes
Body cavity is lined with mesoderm on both sides and the gut is supported by messengers tissue and muscles
Those with mesoderm
muscle tissue is developed from the mesoderm layer, provides animals with more muscle development, and have more complex mode of locomotion
just have an ectoderm and endoderm
third layer formed by eumatazoans aside from cnidarians and ctenophores
Forms between endo and ecto (either by schizocoelous (protosomes) or enterococcus (deutrosomes)
lines the newly formed archeneron; gives rise to lining of gut and organs
Covers outside of gastrula; gives rise to epidermis and CNS ( if present)
Locomotion in multicellular animals is a function of muscle cells and tissues. In eumetazoa, the formation of muscle tissues depends on the development of germ
In animals the zygote undergoes repeated mitotic division to form a hollow ball of cells called the bastula, bastula undergoes invagination or gastrulation to form a gastrula, Results in two germ layers
found in all other phyla
Also exhibit cephalization ; concentration of sensory structures at the anterior (forward) end of an organism
Adaptive for animals that are more motile so they can detect food or predators in front of them
found in Cnidaria and Ctenophora
Adaptive in animals that are non motile (sessile) or slow moving
Equal opportunity to detect food or predators in any direction
muscles antagonize (push or pull against) the Skelton in order to make the body move
The bigger the muscle the more space it need to attach
Ex. Golden eagle require large pectoral muscles to power their flight, they attach at two places the humerus (upper arm bone) and down the sternum (breastbone), in order to make space the sternum has a keel.
extremely specialized body forms to suit their environment
Depends on how reliant they are on water and ranges forms oft tissue modifications like webbed feet to skeletal changes like fins or flippers
Poalr bears are considered marine
Sleek and hydrodynamic with increased surface area on appendages to help propel themselves
live underground
Rely on digging to find food
Ability to manoeuvres underground, lower friction to move through burrows and strong forearms for moving soil
Streamlined body, short tail, short & wide limbs with large claws , sculpted forearms for more room for large muscles to attach
adapted for running (cats, humans, ostriches)
Longer limbs, flexible spinal columns, digitigrade/ unguligrade stance ( walking on toes or walking on hooves).
Ecological fitness depends on speed, longer strides mean more distance with less energy, traction prevents a fall that could result in getting eaten
Early humans are cursorial hunters
Many examples Insectivory in mammals but doesn’t mean they all came from a single insectivorous ancestor but they tend to have the same morphology
front and hind girdles and limbs vary among tetrapods depending on their locomotion
All share a suite of homologous bones from a common fish ancestor greatly modified to how the animal moves
The pectoral girdle is not attached to the VC, muscles and connective tissues position it
Pelvic girdle is fused to the VC in the sacral region
Fused to the pelvic girdle and serve as muscle attachment points
Run between rib cage and pelvic region and strengthen the back
Bear ribs to protect the heart and lungs and contribute to the breathing process
these are the neck vertebrae responsible for movement of the head
more complex, to support their body on land without the help of buoyancy, best expressed in mammals
5 vertebral regions: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, caudal
Most species rich phylum on the planet with almost one mil species 2/3 of all known species
jointed limbs this group is unified by the exoskeleton and jointed appendages
Bean beetle is a representative
diversified into such an array of body plans far more than any other phylum
Includes snails, slugs, chitons, sea slugs, bivalves, squids, octopuses, cuttlefish and others
Cephalopods are the most intelligent invertebrates, and have special restriction on their study that is reserved for vertebrates
Annelid worms or segmented worms, are so name because of the ring like strucutres seen along their body
leeches and earth worms also includes Christmas tree worms and deep sea vent worms, lumbricus terrestris
ancient phylum (680 Mya) includes corals, jellyfish, hydras, anemones
Can be motile or sessile, solitary or colonial and are unified by the presence of cnidocyte cells which contain specialized stinging organelles called nematocysts
Some argue there is an unequal split in lichen relationship, some describe this relationship as being agricultural with the lichen having domesticated the algae
dr sprinkle discovered a third symbiotic partner in a Clade of lichens; meaning lichen might be an Ascomycetes, a basidiomycete and photosynethic partner
Thallus is attached to the substrate at the base only and grow vertically upward or downward; shrub or hair like
(Thallus is the body of the lichen)
Flat with leaf like lobes attached to the substrate rhizines or circular and attached by a single cord; thallus has an upper and lower surface
crustose, foliose, fructiose
Completed by fungal partner with ascocarp (Ascomycetes are almost always the fungal partner)
Occur through fragmentation of the thallus or through the production of sordeia (structures made up of algae cells and fungal hyphae )
dominate the flora in large areas of mountain and arctic regions where few plants can grow
Play an important role in the colonization of bare areas despite their slow growth
Valuable food source, produce dyes, sources of medicines, poisons ,cosmetic and perfumes
Sensitive to pollution
relationship between fungi and algae/cyanobacteria
Symbiosis was first coined for this relationship
Photosynethic partner produces sugars and fix nitrogen while the fungi provides shelter and moisture, expanding the range of environments the partner can live in
Fungal partner grows in elaborate ways to max their partners photosynthesis (transparent hyphae act like fibre optic filaments and tunnels that direct sunlight)
this fungi penetrates the root cells
The name arbuscular comes from the structure that branches out inside the plant cell where exchange of nutrient occurs
Ectomycorrhizal fungi surround the root and grow between the root cells, but never grow inside the cell (ecto: outer)
The interaction between species; benefits one but neither harms nor helps the other
the association is beenficial to both organism
one benefits other is harmed
Realtionship between organisms of two different species where they live togther in direct contact
3 types: parasitic, mutualistic, commensal
form direct relationships with plant, algae, Cyanobacteria, and animals, they absorb nutrients from their symbiotic partner or host, but can provide benefit
Symbiotic realtionships with plants (mycorrhiza) Or with algae & Cyanobacteria (lichens) or animals (leaf cutter ants)
Or paratism (Dutch elm disease) caused by ophiostoma ulmi
Absorbs nutrients from the cells of living hosts of plants and animals
Ex. Blights or powdery mildew on crops, zombie fungus in insects or histoplasmosis in athletes foot
The enzyme and biochemical abilities that make fungi able to invade our lifestyle are also what allows us to use them for processing foods, steroids, organic acids, alcohols,hormones, antibiotics, and vitamins
breaks down and absorb nutrients from dead organic material
helps take the carbon and nitrogen stuck in organic matter
Helps keep ecosystems stocked with inorganic nutrients for plant growth
majority of fungi, means they derive their energy from the breakdown of organic material (living or dead sources) e
Enzymes are produced within the hyphae, secreted through the plasma mebrane, diffuse through the cell wall and break large molecules int he substrate into smaller one
Small molecules go back into the hyphae for metabolic purposes
important decomposers and extomycorrhizal fungi
Club fungi don’t have long lived dikaryotic mycelium
the fruiting bodies commonly called mushrooms of this fly agaric are familiar sight in coniferous forests of the north hemisphere
arbuusuclar mycorrhizae fungi
Great ecological importance that many plants form mycorrhizal associations with
This shows glomeromycete hyphae (dark blue stain) within a plant root
hyphae including this mould in the genus mucor (), grow rapidly into foods such as fruit and bread
May act as a descomposer (if food is dead) or a parasite; other species live as neutral (commensal) symbionts
globular fruiting body forms multicellular, branched hyphae ()
Other species are single celled
They have flagellated spores and are though to be some of the earliest fungal groups to diverge from other fungi
grouping convenience; more of a bin to place organisms that seem similar and don’t have a known Clade , informal grouping of taxa
There are 15k species of fungi that are known only in their asexual state (penicillium sp)
Once sexual life cycle is discovered they are no longer part of this grouping
Important unicellular group of fungi, not a formal taxonomic group but a growth form found in all the phyla of fungi
not all fungi are multicellular and form hyphae
Simply a unicellular fungus that reproduces asexually by budding
Common examples saccharomyces cerevisiae used as a source of ethanol and by bakers as a source of co2 for the leavening of bread
decended from one common ancestor
Asomcyete mycelia produce pigmented haploid spores (conidia)
dispersed, germinated into hypha and made into mycelium (n)
sac fungi because of their sac like structure where spores are produced
Many members of this group form symbiotic relationships as lichen or mycorrhizae, others are single celled yeasts, deathly plant pathogens or free living cup fungi
two haploid mycelia of different mating types go through plasmogamy
Diakrytoic mycelium forms, crowing out the haploid parental mycelia (n+n)
Environmental cues (rain or temp change) make dikaryotic mycelium make compact masses that develop into basidocarps (n+n)
The basidiocarp gills are lined with terminal dikaryotic cells called basidia (n+n)
Karyogamy in each basidium produces a diploid nucleus which undergoes meiosis (2n)
Each diploid nucleus yield 4 haploid nuclei each which develop into a basidiospore
When mature, basidiospores dispersed by wind
Basidopsores germinate and grow into short lived haploid mycelia in a suitable environment
Club fungi, the spore producing cells called basidia look like clubs; fruiting body varies a lot between species
simpler; the spores are produced which germinate into hyphae and form the mycelium mat
Mycelium has spore producing structures which produce more spores and the cycle continues
Heterokaryotic stage before (n + n)
where the 2 nuclei fuse together uniting into a diploid zygote nucleus (2n)
Diploid phase is short as those diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce 4 spores
When the cytoplasm from two hyphae fuse together, brining the nuclei from each parent into one cell
the nuclei pair up but don’t fuse, forming a diary on (2 nucleii)
the dikaryon is the n+n phase, while the cytoplasm is fused together the nuclei are separate
The n + n phase grows into the reproductive fruiting body, where a small area undergoes the next phase
occurs to produce spores, these germinate into hyphae which form mycelium
hyphae differntiated into fleshy structures
interwoven mat of hyphae
Tubular filaments; basic building blocks of the final body
provide a protected, durable enclosure for the production and dispersal of spores, fungi propagate (produce another fungus) by producing a huge number of spore sexually or asexually
hyphae
mycelium
fruiting bodies
they are heterotrophs like animals but they absorb nutrients from the environment outside of its body , many secret enzymes into the environment to break down molecule so they are easier to absorb
Other use enzymes to penetrate cell walls to absorb nutrients
All fungal cells have a rigid wall made of chitin outside of the plasma membrane
the ability to absorb (rather than ingest or synethsize) compounds for metabolism
the ability to reproduce by forming spores
means of sample
substitiution, deletion, insertion
material out of commercial peer review
Gov reports, uni resources, unpublished thesis, fact sheets
Not peer reviewed
Lastly web resources, find the citation within the site
observation
question
Design
Hypothesis/prediction
Experiment
Results
Conclusion
more effcient travel of water in plants, rather than osmosis cell by cell, rigid also so provides stabiltiy to grow tall
taxon that is distinct from the group of intrest but can be used to compare (close relative)
where organism lives, more than a space to live has biotic (living or once living) and abitoic factors (non living)
statisitical altnerate hypotheisis: attribute results to experimental treatments
written by the scientists who did the reasearch
Check method and results if you aren’t sure
Go through peer review before being published